Organophosphates (OPs) are used in agriculture via pesticides, and warfare and terrorism via nerve agents. OPs can inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the nervous system, leading to the buildup of acetylcholine (ACh), and overstimulation of the nervous system and eventual asphyxiation and death. The development of novel blood-brain barrier () penetrating pyridinium oxime reactivators have previously demonstrated efficacy towards treatment of OP poisoning after exposure of rats to a sarin or a VX surrogate, nitrophenyl isopropyl methylphosphonate (NIMP) and nitrophenyl ethyl methylphosphonate (NEMP), respectively. An effective oxime antidote capable of penetrating the and restoring nervous system activity after exposure to a cyclosarin surrogate, nitrophenyl cyclohexyl methylphosphonate (NCMP), has yet to be determined. In Chapter 2, in vitro testing of the efficacy of 17 total novel oxime candidates to utilize against NCMP was conducted with a modified Ellman’s AChE assay. Pools of naïve adult male rat brains were utilized as the AChE source. The first variable investigated was the measurement of AChE activity after inhibition with NCMP and subsequent reactivation with one of the oximes. The second variable investigated restoration of AChE activity after simultaneous oxime and NCMP incubation. The final variable investigated the restoration of AChE activity after simultaneous 2-PAM, oxime and NCMP incubation. A thorough kinetic analysis of our best oximes has yet to be accomplished. In Chapter 3, the best oxime antidotes for NEMP and NIMP were used for kinetic analysis with a modified 96-well plate Ellman’s AChE assay. Protein concentrations were analyzed with a modified Lowry protein tube assay to ensure consistent analytical concentrations. The sources of AChE included pooled rat brain and skeletal muscle, and rat and human erythrocytes and plasma. Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity was also measured in the rat and human plasma samples. The results of these studies strengthen the argument that our oxime antidotes can be used as potential therapeutic drugs for OP poisoning. The kinetic data provided critical information to help propose, for Chapter 4, a dynamic pharmacokinetic based model to predict human AChE or BChE activity after exposure to nerve agent surrogates (NEMP and NIMP) and the oximes (44.08 and 44.25).

Thesis (M.A.)--Naval Postgraduate School, September 2003. / Title from title screen (viewed Jan. 22, 2004). Includes bibliographical references. Also issued in paper format.

Dramatic changes in the international system since the early nineties, namely the end of the Cold War and the post-9/11 ascendancy of the Bush Doctrine, have left many to wonder whether Cold War era influence strategies such as deterrence, compellence, and engagement are viable against new U.S. threats-rogue states. This thesis will examine U.S. efforts between 1986 and 2004 to convince Libya to cease its support for international terrorism and weapons of mass destruction (WMD). U.S. influence strategy towards Libya was a short term failure and a long term success. The compellence and deterrence policies established by President Reagan and strengthened by later administrations served to isolate Libya economically and diplomatically and set the conditions for successful conditional engagement. Positive behavior change by Libya began first with the Clinton Administration's introduction of conditional engagement. The Bush Administration, benefiting from years of Libyan isolation and the positive response to conditional engagement, continued to engage Libya in an incremental fashion. Libya renounced its terrorist ties in August 2003 and weapons of mass destruction in December 2003. Since then Tripoli has taken actionable steps to verify this change of policy and both governments are currently on course for reconciliation.

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. / Considering the ever-rising threat of terrorist attack and disruption of the economy and of daily activity, the potential strength of a radiological dispersion device must be evaluated. A "dirty bomb" is a weapon in the terrorist arsenal that is highly effective in creating chaos, panic and disruption. All of the immediate deaths caused by a "dirty bomb" are due to blast effects, however the public association with radiation and nuclear devices is one of fear and hyperbole. The individuals and agencies that respond to this type of event will have the greatest impact on the general public. By looking at case studies and potential scenarios or exercises the first responder can appreciate the nature of radiation as well as its impact on response. The goal of this paper is to provide first responders with basic information on nuclear physics and expose relevant issues in responding to a radiological dispersion device. An understandable link between nuclear physics and radiation response does exist. / Ensign, United States Navy

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited / The geopolitical change and emergence of new threats, notably terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, forced a reappraisal of the political and security roles of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Alliance's post- Cold War development, operations in the Balkans, and differences across the Atlantic also provided grounds for a revision of NATO's purely self-defense dimension. The Alliance, after having permanent out-of-area debates, has realized that it can no longer be circumscribed by artificial geographic boundaries to meet the future. At its Summit in Prague 2002, NATO initiated a new concept transforming itself into an effective organization with a global approach. By establishing the NATO Response Force, balancing the burden-shifting, and opening the security dialog among likeminded allies, NATO renewed the essence of common transatlantic values. By analyzing NATO's role and its prevailing tendencies, this thesis contends that NATO is no longer a regional security organization but a collective security instrument with its first front abroad, in the Greater Middle East and Northern Africa. However, if NATO is to contribute profoundly to international peace, it needs an institutional framework with global legitimacy. / Lieutenant Colonel, Czech Armed Forces

The A. Q. Khan nuclear supplier network constitutes the most severe loss of control over nuclear technology ever. For the first time in history all of the keys to a nuclear weapon*the supplier networks, the material, the enrichment technology, and the warhead designs--were outside of state oversight and control. This thesis demonstrates that Khan's nuclear enterprise evolved out of a portion of the Pakistani procurement network of the 1970s and 1980s. It presents new information on how the Pakistani state organized, managed, and oversaw its nuclear weapons laboratories. This thesis provides extensive documentation of command and control challenges faced by Pakistan and argues that Khan was largely a rogue actor outside of state oversight. The A. Q. Khan affair refutes more optimistic theories about the effects of nuclear proliferation. This case study indicates that states have a difficult time balancing an abstract notion of safety against pressing needs for organizational speed and flexibility. This thesis enumerates enabling institutional factors in Pakistan, which allowed Khan's enterprise to continue and flourish, and which might also be generalizable to other states of proliferation concern.

This thesis analyzes Libya's historic 2003 decision to abandon its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs. In the 2 years following the decision, several theories have emerged to explain why the Libyan regime renounced these dangerous weapons. The author uses current literature and relevant sources to analyze the three most probable external causal factors: sanctions and diplomacy, intelligence, and coercive diplomacy. He finds that sanctions, diplomacy, and intelligence were significant in altering the Libyan cost-benefit analysis in favor of the West. These findings have political and theoretical implications. Lessons learned from the Libyan case will not be effective against Iran and North Korea due to differences between these countries' proliferation motivation levels and the Libyan case. However, the influence strategies that were effective against Libya are likely to be applicable in other situations. The author finds that more research is still needed to identify the conditions when different strategies are most likely to be effective.

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited / In the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the issue of political violence expressed via mass destruction has raised security concerns to an unprecedented degree not seen since the end of the Cold War. As a principal adversary, the Soviet Union has been replaced by terror networks applying asymmetric warfare to achieve politically charged or ideologically driven objectives. A scenario whereby non-state actors would acquire a nuclear capability not only threatens the security of the United States, but would destabilize the Westphalian notion of the primacy of nation-states within the international system. Despite U.S. expenditures of over $86 million to help nearly 30 countries worldwide in preventing the smuggling of weapons-useable radiological materials, over 20 known cases of such activity were reported between 1992 and 2001. Previous research has concentrated on a singularly defined threat: The Rogue State. Today's challenges are characterized by more defused, decentralized networks, to include transnational actors with the potential to proliferate and supply terrorists with a nuclear weapon or weapons-grade radiological material. This thesis examines the applicability of traditional Cold War strategies such as deterrence, pre-emption, prevention, and coercive diplomacy in the present context, to deny extremist groups and associated networks the means to buy, steal, or make nuclear and radiological weapons. This thesis proposes a multi-dimensional approach in support of mixed-strategies for winning the race against nuclear terror. The author contends that terrorist groups cannot acquire nuclear or radiological technology without the witting or unwitting support of state actors.

CHDS State/Local / The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks were a watershed event in this country's history that significantly affected law enforcement agencies and organizations at all levels, including the FBI and the multidisciplinary Joint Terrorism Task Forces. The terrorist attacks served as a catalyst for evaluating cultural, psychological and organizational processes, policies and procedures that influenced the FBI and impacted the JTTF program. In 2006 a comprehensive study was conducted to investigate whether FBI provided JTTF members with the necessary tools to support their investigations. The study identified a number of deficiencies. In order to adapt and combat an emergent asymmetric threat, the JTTF must identify and analyze specific actions and best practices necessary to prepare, execute, and support strategic change and innovation and overcome obstacles that impede the process. It is also necessary to identify and implement best and/or smart practices, especially those plans, policies, and procedures that ensure the skills, experience, and expertise of task force participants are maximized and seamlessly integrated into the JTTF program. The implementation of standardized written procedures that detail roles, responsibilities, training, orientation, and access to databases and information sharing will better enable participants to efficiently contribute to the JTTF mission. Institutionalizing an innovative culture and framework that provides the flexibility to evaluate and develop necessary skills and competencies in participant stakeholders is essential for the future success of the JTTF program. / SSA, Department of Justice (DOJ)/Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited / The defense response against chemical and biological (Chem/bio) weapons has gained a renewed focus in light of the 11 Sept 2001 terrorist attack. A successful response to a Chem/bio attack would involve measuring and predicting the dispersion of a toxic cloud in the atmosphere. TheNPS Aeronautics and Astronautics Department is working together with the Meteorology Department on a technique to make toxic cloud measurements using an Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV). In support of this mission, the UAV will require precise and accurate air data (airspeed, angle of attack ["alpha"], and sideslip angle ["beta"]) so that wind data extraction can be carried out from air and inertial data for use in plume dispersion modeling. The efforts in this thesis concentrate on the air data system to produce precise and accurate air data for the support of the Chem/bio response UAV flights. The primary concerns are the choice and design of the air data system; the calibration of the system using the flow fields from computer simulation; and the processing of air data. The air data extracted will be used for wind determination so that the movement of the Chem/bio dispersed agent in the atmosphere can be predicted. / Captain, Republic of Singapore Air Force