Secondary ion mass spectrometry, SIMS, is one of the most versatile surface analytical techniques. The significant parameter determining the performance of SIMS is the secondary ion yield. Atomic projectiles, traditionally used in SIMS, are an inefficient method to desorb and generate secondary ions. The use of poly-atomic projectiles, such as (CsI)nCs, Au3, SF5 and C60, has been demonstrated to be an effective means to enhance secondary ion yields. Still larger secondary ion yields can be obtained with massive gold clusters, specifically Au4004+. Secondary ion yields from organic targets approach unity and are in excess of unity for selected inorganic targets. This dissertation is a first study of the secondary ion emission characteristics resulting from surface bombardment of keV Au400. The enhanced secondary ion yields from these massive clusters resulted in a need to detect isobaric secondary ions. An eight-anode detector was designed, built and implemented to study secondary ion emission resulting from massive projectile impacts. Secondary ion yield enhancements, resulting from use of the multi-anode detector, are reported along with secondary ion distributions for organic and inorganic targets. Au-adduct ions have been observed in mass spectra resulting form organic and inorganic targets bombarded by Au400. Data indicate that these adducts are a result of projectile/surface molecule interactions and not a product of Au implantation. Secondary ion yields of these adducts are reported. Although these adduct ion yields are an order of magnitude lower than the non-adduct ions, we have demonstrated their potential usefulness in analytical applications, such as examining surface homogeneity. Finally, these novel projectiles have been used to examine secondary ion emission from targets with different structural properties which have the same stoichiometry. In a comparative study, we have measured a significant difference in secondary ion emission and yields from the two systems, graphite and α-ZrP. Au400, at 136 keV, is effective in terms of secondary ion yield and secondary ion multiplicity enhancement. When used in the event-by-event bombardment/detection mode, the desorption volume has a diameter between 10-20 nm with and emission depth of approximately 5 nm, perturbing less than an attomole of analyte.

Secondary ion mass spectrometry, SIMS, is one of the most versatile surface analytical techniques. The significant parameter determining the performance of SIMS is the secondary ion yield. Atomic projectiles, traditionally used in SIMS, are an inefficient method to desorb and generate secondary ions. The use of poly-atomic projectiles, such as (CsI)nCs, Au3, SF5 and C60, has been demonstrated to be an effective means to enhance secondary ion yields. Still larger secondary ion yields can be obtained with massive gold clusters, specifically Au4004+. Secondary ion yields from organic targets approach unity and are in excess of unity for selected inorganic targets. This dissertation is a first study of the secondary ion emission characteristics resulting from surface bombardment of keV Au400. The enhanced secondary ion yields from these massive clusters resulted in a need to detect isobaric secondary ions. An eight-anode detector was designed, built and implemented to study secondary ion emission resulting from massive projectile impacts. Secondary ion yield enhancements, resulting from use of the multi-anode detector, are reported along with secondary ion distributions for organic and inorganic targets. Au-adduct ions have been observed in mass spectra resulting form organic and inorganic targets bombarded by Au400. Data indicate that these adducts are a result of projectile/surface molecule interactions and not a product of Au implantation. Secondary ion yields of these adducts are reported. Although these adduct ion yields are an order of magnitude lower than the non-adduct ions, we have demonstrated their potential usefulness in analytical applications, such as examining surface homogeneity. Finally, these novel projectiles have been used to examine secondary ion emission from targets with different structural properties which have the same stoichiometry. In a comparative study, we have measured a significant difference in secondary ion emission and yields from the two systems, graphite and α-ZrP. Au400, at 136 keV, is effective in terms of secondary ion yield and secondary ion multiplicity enhancement. When used in the event-by-event bombardment/detection mode, the desorption volume has a diameter between 10-20 nm with and emission depth of approximately 5 nm, perturbing less than an attomole of analyte.

Dusty star forming galaxies (DSFGs), characterized by their far-infrared (far-IR) emission, undergo the largest starbursts in the Universe, contributing to the majority of the cosmic star formation rate density at z = 1−4. The Herschel Space Observatory for the first time was able observe the full far-IR dust emission for a large population of high-redshift DSFGs, thereby accurately measuring their star formation rates. With gravitational lensing, we are able to surpass the Herschel confusion limit and probe intrinsically less luminous and therefore more normal star-forming galaxies. With this goal in mind, we have conducted a large Herschel survey, the Herschel Lensing Survey, of the cores of almost 600 massive galaxy clusters, where the effects of gravitational lensing are the strongest. In this thesis, I present follow-up studies of gravitationally lensed Herschel-detected DSFGs by utilizing multi-wavelength data from optical to radio. Specifically, I characterize the star forming properties of gravitationally lensed DSFGs by using these three subsamples: (1) A gravitationally lensed DSFG galaxy at z = 0.6 in one of the most massive galaxy clusters, Abell S1063 (at z = 0.3), (2) One of the brightest sources in HLS, which is a system of two strongly gravitationally lensed galaxies, one at z = 2.0 (optically faint gravitational arc) and the other at z = 4.7 (triply-imaged galaxy), (3) A sample of the brightest sources in HLS at z = 1−4, in which we detect rest-frame optical nebular emission lines (e.g. Hα, Hβ, [OIII]λλ4959,5007) by utilizing near-IR spectroscopy. The main results from these studies are as follows: (1) In the cluster-lensed DSFG at z = 0.6, discovered in the core of Abell S1063, we identify a luminous (SFR = 10 M⊙/yr) giant (D~1 kpc) HII region similar to those typically found at higher redshift (z~2). We show that the HII region is embedded in a rotating disk and likely formed in isolation, rather than through galaxy interaction, which is observed in local galaxies. We can use this source as a nearby laboratory for star forming regions at z ~ 2, in which more detailed follow-up of this source can help us to understand their origin/properties. (2) We discovered that one of the brightest sources in HLS is a blend of two cluster-lensed DSFGs, one at z = 2.0 (an optically faint arc) and the other at z = 4.7 (triply-imaged galaxy), implying that a sample of bright Herschel sources may have such multiplicity. In the z = 2.0 arc, the sub-arcsecond clumps detected in the SMA image surprisingly do not correspond to the clumps in the JVLA CO(1-0) image. When investigating the CO(1-0) velocity structure, there is a substantial amount of molecular gas (likely a molecular wind/outflow) we find that we find is not associated with star formation. This suggests that the CO morphology in DSFGs could be strongly influenced by molecular outflows resulting in the over-prediction of the amount of the molecular gas available for star formation. In the z = 2.0 arc, we also constrain αCO~4. While this value is normal for galaxies like the Milky Way, it is quite unusual for ULIRGs. This hints that the physical conditions may be much different in the arc from other ULIRGs, which usually have αCO ≈ 0.8.(3) We successfully detect rest-frame optical emission lines in 8 gravitationally lensed DSFGs at z = 1−4 using ground-based near-IR spectroscopy with Keck, LBT and Magellan. The luminosities of these lines are substantially less than what the far-IR derived star formation rates predict, suggesting that these DSFGs have large dust attenuations. The difference in the star formation rates is a factor of 30 x (AV= 4), which is larger than previously reported for DSFGs at z > 1. One galaxy (z = 1.5) in the sample showed the largest suppression with a factor of 550x (AV = 7), which is similar to local ULIRGs. Future prospects: Herschel provided a glimpse into the star formation of DSFGs, but only the brightest at z > 2 could be studied in detail without gravitational lensing. ALMA will revolutionize the study of DSFGs with its high spatial resolution submm/mm imaging of their dust continuum and molecular gas, and it will begin to unravel their physical properties. In order to detect nebular emission lines in fainter higher redshift sources, 20-30 meter class telescopes, with next generation near-IR spectrographs, will be necessary. JWST will play a significant role as it will target rest-frame optical nebular emission lines in DSFGs unobtainable from the ground as well as weaker Hydrogen series lines (such as Paschen and Brackett series) to better understand their instantaneous star formation and dust attenuation.

Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) is a surface analysis technique which characterizes species sputtered by an energetic particle beam. Bombardment with cluster projectiles offers the following notable advantages over bombardment with atomic ions or small clusters: enhanced emission of molecular ions, low damage cross-section, and reduced molecular fragmentation. Additionally, in the case of Au4004 and C60 impacts, desorption originates from nanometric volumes. These features make clusters useful probes to obtain molecular information from both nano-objects and nano-domains. The "event-by-event bombardment/detection mode" probes nano-objects one-at-a-time, while collecting and storing the corresponding secondary ion (SI) information. Presented here are the first experiments where free-standing nano-objects were bombarded with keV projectiles of atomic to nanoparticle size. The objects are aluminum nano-whiskers, 2 nm in diameter and ~250 nm in length. Au4004 has a diameter of ~2 nm, comparable to the nominal diameter of the nanowhiskers. There are notable differences in the SI response from sample volumes too small for full projectile energy deposition. The whisker spectra are dominated by small clusters?the most abundant species being AlO- and AlO2-. Bulk samples have larger yields for AlO2- than for AlO-, while this trend is reversed in whisker samples. Bulk samples give similar abundances of large SI clusters, while whisker samples give an order of magnitude lower yield of these SIs. Effective yields were calculated in order to determine quantitative differences between the nano-objects and bulk samples. The characterization of individual nano-objects from a mixture is demonstrated with negatively charged polymer spheres that are attracted to and retained by the nano-whiskers. The spheres are monodisperse polystyrene nanoparticles (30nm diameter). Our results show that the event-by-event mode can provide information on the nature, size, relative location, and abundance of nano-objects in the field of view. This study presents the first evidence of quantitative molecular information originating from nano-object mixtures. Biologically relevant systems (solid-supported lipid bilayers) were also characterized using Au5 , Au4004 and C60 . Organization-dependent SI emission was observed for phosphocholine bilayers. Lipid domain formation was also investigated in bilayers formed from cholesterol and a mixed lipid system. Trends in the correlation coefficient suggest that cholesterol segregates from the surrounding lipid environment during raft formation.