Thesis advisor: Shanta Pandey / Thesis advisor: Cal Halvorsen / Students in the United States missed more than 11 million school days in the academic year 2017-2018 due to out-of-school suspensions. Research has shown that suspension has adverse short- and long-term consequences, such as lower academic achievement and lower graduation rates. With school suspension affecting approximately one-third of students across their K-12 experience, policymakers, researchers, and professionals have outlined school suspension as a major problem. Maternal involvement has been identified as a significant factor in student achievement, motivation, and aiming toward higher education, but little is known of the influence it may have on reducing exclusionary discipline—particularly for mothers with nonstandard employment. Exclusionary discipline is discipline practices that isolates students from the classroom environment. Guided by disability critical race theory, role conflict theory, and ecological systems theory, this dissertation utilized the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing dataset to assess the relationship between maternal nonstandard employment and three response variables: mothers’ (1) school-based and (2) home-based academic involvement; and (3) children’s school suspension rates. Children’s special education status was tested as a potential moderator for all three response variables, and maternal academic involvement was tested as a potential mediator between maternal nonstandard employment and children’s school suspension rates. There was a positive relationship between mothers working a sporadic schedule and their school-academic involvement, but not their home-academic involvement. There was a negative relationship between mothers working on the weekends and home-academic involvement, but not school-academic involvement. There was a negative relationship between mothers working on the weekends and youth school suspension, but the association was lost when covariates were included in the model. Despite the fact that Black mothers had a higher likelihood of academic involvement (both school based and home based) than White mothers, Black children also had a higher likelihood of school suspension than White children. Similarly, mothers with youth in special education had a higher likelihood of academic involvement (both school based and home based) than mothers with youth not in special education, however youth in special education also had a higher likelihood of school suspension than youth not in special education. Additional factors that were shown to decrease the odds of school suspension include- youth engaging in no or less externalizing behavior, being a boy, higher income status and higher maternal education. These results show the need to improve anti-racism and anti-ableism initiatives to reduce the suspension gap through implicit bias training, increased community engagement efforts, and restorative justice practices. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2024. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Social Work. / Discipline: Social Work.

Background: Maternal employment has been highlighted in numerous studies as an important determinant of childhood mortality but in contexts which do not have regional significance to Swaziland. Studies such as those conducted in India (Sivakami, 1997) and China (Short et al. 2002) considered maternal employment as an important predictor of childhood mortality. Childhood mortality is still high in Swaziland and with increasing poverty and disease the under-five mortality rate continues to increase. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between maternal employment and childhood mortality in Swaziland. Methodology: the Swaziland Demographic and Household Survey (SDHS) conducted in 2006/7 interviewed 4,987 women. Due to the nature of this study, only women who had given birth to at least one child five years preceding the SDHS 2006/7 interviews were included. The sample size used for the study was of 2,136 mothers. Main conclusions of the study were drawn based on the use of a binary logistic regression model in the multivariate section. With the use of a conceptual framework adapted from the classic theoretical model developed by Mosley and Chen (1984) key variables were identified as determinants of childhood mortality. Use of the STATA 11 software was employed to obtain the results. Results: results showed 58.88 percent unemployment rate amongst mothers in Swaziland. The main results showed mother’s employment as having an adverse impact on childhood mortality. Bivariate results showed that mothers who were employed experienced higher childhood mortality and the adjusted regression model showed mothers who work have a 38 percent increased likelihood of childhood mortality compared to mothers who do not work. Maternal education also showed its importance as a predictor of childhood mortality; the higher the level of maternal education the less chances mothers have of experiencing childhood mortality. Maternal age also demonstrated significance as mothers ages increase so too do the chances of childhood deaths. Other significant factors include number of household members, the number of children born as well as breastfeeding duration. Conclusion: The results confirmed the alternative hypothesis to be true which states that mothers who work experience significantly higher childhood mortality in Swaziland. The study also highlighted that in contemporary society, child rearing and maternal employment are incompatible and need to re-evaluate policy concerning this matter is essential to better childhood survival.

A vast literature has identified the importance of childcare for understanding cross-national variation in women’s employment, and has particularly emphasised the role of the state in ensuring the delivery of services. This thesis explores variation within market-based childcare systems in order to understand how systems with less state provision may support or constrain maternal employment. The thesis argues that understanding whether childcare markets ‘work’ or not in supporting maternal employment requires a deep understanding of the interplay between market and state, as the specific policy approach taken can shape the structure of the market in profoundly different ways. This issue is explored via comparative case studies of the United States and the United Kingdom, two countries known for their market-based approach to childcare, but with stark and persistent differences in maternal employment behaviour, especially working time. Drawing on a mix of qualitative (policy documents) and quantitative (national statistics) data, the US and UK systems are compared along a series of dimensions comprising the two key components of the market-based system: the structure of market provision and the policy approach. The similarities and differences of these systems are analysed through the lens of the characteristics of services known to be important for the use of care for employment purposes: availability, cost and quality. The United States and United Kingdom have generally similar childcare systems when compared to other countries which rely more heavily on the state or the family to ensure childcare provision, which is in line with their common characterisation as liberal welfare regimes. However, there are important differences in the structure of their childcare markets which affect their ability to support maternal employment: for example, the US market poses fewer affordability constraints for maternal employment given the availability of relatively low cost care provision (albeit of questionable quality); the UK market in contrast provides care at higher cost, although this is likely of better quality. This variation in market provision is shaped by differences in the policy approach taken by each country: the US approach is primarily designed to soften the rougher edges of the market in what is otherwise considered a private sphere; in contrast the UK approach actively attempts to shape the childcare market into a system in line with policy goals. The consequence of this is that the US approach does not prevent a wide range of market provision from forming to cater to diverse tastes and budgets, but this necessarily includes a substantial degree of lower quality care. The UK approach more actively constrains the types of provision which are available, which on the one hand reduces supply and contributes to higher cost provision, but also sets higher standards for care provision. Together these findings suggest that understanding how market-based care systems do or do not support maternal employment requires not only an appreciation of the broader institutional context in which they are situated, but also the intended and unintended ways that policy-making can shape their structure.

Currently in Australia, 80% of women are employed during first pregnancy, and 40% resume employment in the postpartum. The first aim of this study was to identify which of a broad range of factors, including maternal preferences, maternal separation anxiety and maternity entitlements, contributed to maternal employment in the first 10 postpartum. The second aim was to identify the contribution of women’s satisfaction with employment arrangements to their psychological well-being. Participants were 165 employed pregnant women over 18 years of age and with sufficient English for completion of study materials, systematically recruited in the third trimester of pregnancy. Data were collected in pregnancy and at 3 and 10 months postpartum. Maternal preferences, not or no longer breastfeeding and lower maternal separation anxiety were associated with significantly increased likelihood of resuming postpartum employment when maternal age, educational attainment and occupational status were controlled for. A constellation of adverse employment conditions made independent contributions to measurably worse maternal mood including experiencing sexual discrimination in pregnancy, no maternity entitlements when known determinants of poorer maternal well-being were controlled in regression analyses. These findings provide evidence about the relevance of structural determinants to maternal well-being, and highlight the urgency of a national paid parental leave scheme in Australia.

The purpose of the study is to determine the relationship between maternal employment and teenage character traits. Statistics show a significant increase in women entering the labour market and although demographics are changing rapidly, social attitudes and policies may lag behind, and the concept of mothers as principal caretakers and fathers as economic providers remains very much in place. The profound and sometimes contradictory convictions of individual members about working mothers and their children paralleled those of countless others and professional people where matched only by the equally profound lack of facts on which these convictions might be based. The objective of the study is to measure the perceived character traits of teenage children in terms of self confidence, locus of control, independence, time management and ambition. The questions were measured within two different scenarios: the first, within households where both parents are employed, and the second, within households where only the father is employed. The aim of the study is to determine if there is any correlation between maternal employment and the presence or lack of presence of the specified character traits. The empirical study was conducted using the quantitative research method with a non–probability sample. The data collection method used for the purpose of this study was in the form of questionnaires, based on the Likert scale. The content validity of the questionnaire was evaluated by a subject matter expert, while the face validity was determined by the Statistical Consultation Services of the North West University. Analysis of completed questionnaires involved descriptive statistics and practical significance. The target population, high school teachers within the North West and Gauteng Province, consisted of 70 participants. Based on the findings emanating from the research, there were no noticeable difference found between teenagers within households where both parents are employed and households where only the father is employed, although the results indicated a tendency for children within households where both parents are employed to be slightly more self confident, lean more towards an internal lotus of control, have higher ambition and are less dependent than those teenagers from households where only the father is employed. These findings, although not noticeable, agree with the literature. There were limitations that had an impact on the results of this study. The limited population resulted in a small sample. The sample indicated that 41 percent have five years or less experience. Participants indicated that they are not always aware of the household dynamics. Additional limitations include the strict ethical roadblocks when conducting research on children. It was recommended that a more comprehensive study should follow, which should include the participation of mothers and teenagers alike. This will give the researcher a distinct and clear result of what the influences could be within the household dynamics. / Thesis (M.B.A.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The purpose of the study is to determine the relationship between maternal employment and teenage character traits. Statistics show a significant increase in women entering the labour market and although demographics are changing rapidly, social attitudes and policies may lag behind, and the concept of mothers as principal caretakers and fathers as economic providers remains very much in place. The profound and sometimes contradictory convictions of individual members about working mothers and their children paralleled those of countless others and professional people where matched only by the equally profound lack of facts on which these convictions might be based. The objective of the study is to measure the perceived character traits of teenage children in terms of self confidence, locus of control, independence, time management and ambition. The questions were measured within two different scenarios: the first, within households where both parents are employed, and the second, within households where only the father is employed. The aim of the study is to determine if there is any correlation between maternal employment and the presence or lack of presence of the specified character traits. The empirical study was conducted using the quantitative research method with a non–probability sample. The data collection method used for the purpose of this study was in the form of questionnaires, based on the Likert scale. The content validity of the questionnaire was evaluated by a subject matter expert, while the face validity was determined by the Statistical Consultation Services of the North West University. Analysis of completed questionnaires involved descriptive statistics and practical significance. The target population, high school teachers within the North West and Gauteng Province, consisted of 70 participants. Based on the findings emanating from the research, there were no noticeable difference found between teenagers within households where both parents are employed and households where only the father is employed, although the results indicated a tendency for children within households where both parents are employed to be slightly more self confident, lean more towards an internal lotus of control, have higher ambition and are less dependent than those teenagers from households where only the father is employed. These findings, although not noticeable, agree with the literature. There were limitations that had an impact on the results of this study. The limited population resulted in a small sample. The sample indicated that 41 percent have five years or less experience. Participants indicated that they are not always aware of the household dynamics. Additional limitations include the strict ethical roadblocks when conducting research on children. It was recommended that a more comprehensive study should follow, which should include the participation of mothers and teenagers alike. This will give the researcher a distinct and clear result of what the influences could be within the household dynamics. / Thesis (M.B.A.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The study examined the impact of maternal employment and family life cycle stage on the psychological well-being o£ middle socioeconomic status women. One hundred twenty eight mothers of children at the stages of birth to 6 years, 7 to 12 years and 13 to 17 years, completed a self-report questionnaire. To test the hypothesis of the study, a 3 X 3 (employment X family life cycle stage) analysis of covariance was conducted with age, income, time employed and psychological resources as covariates. Results indicated that middle socioeconomic status mothers employed full-time experienced significantly higher levels of role overload, occupational strain, spouse support and job commitment. A post hoc exploratory analysis using conflict level between commitment to work and parenting, yielded data which indicated that individuals with a large discrepancy between commitment to one role versus the other, experienced the greatest degree of difficulty. Results were evaluated in the light of selective characteristics of the sample. Recommendations for future research included the use of projective assessment to reduce the effect of defensive response styles. A life span approach using the concept of perceived conflict between roles was advanced, instead of the age specific developmental construct of family life cycle stage.

No description available.

The purpose of this study was to determine children's and parents' activity levels, examine the relationship between mothers' and children's mean step counts, and fathers' and children's mean step counts, and determine if there are differences in physical activity levels among children with mothers who work full time, work part time, or are not employed. Fifty-eight families participated in this 12-day study. Each family member wore a Walk4Life LS 2525 or a Walk4Life LS 2505 pedometer to measure daily step counts. Additionally, all participants completed the pedometer step count logs each night, and parents completed a short demographic form. In looking at all children, males averaged more steps per day than females in all three age categories (5-10 years, male = 12,555 to female = 10,729; 11-13 years, male = 13,749 to female = 10,373; 14-18 years, 11,849 to female = 9,795). Additionally, fathers were more active than mothers (fathers' mean step counts averaged 9,490 and mothers' mean step counts averaged 8,715). Pearson correlations revealed that parents' physical activity levels were significantly correlated with children's activity levels (mothers to their children = .247, p = .003 & fathers to their children = .316, p = .000). Further analysis using Pearson correlations showed significant correlations between mothers and their female children (.291, p = .022) and between fathers and their male children (.342, p = .002). ANOVA (mothers' employment status x mean daily step count) was used to determine differences among the three groups (full time, part time, and not employed). No significant differences in children's mean step counts were found among any of the groups (F (2, 141) = 2.545, p = .082).

No description available.