Devido às suas potenciais aplicações tecnológicas (células solares, transistores de filme fino TFT, etc.), o estudo do silício amorfo (a-Si) tem despertado o interesse da comunidade científica desde o final da década de 70. Mais recentemente, este interesse foi renovado com o desenvolvimento da técnica de cristalização induzida por metal (Metal-induced Crystallization MIC), por causa do considerável interesse na obtenção do silício cristalino (c-Si) a baixas temperaturas. Dentre as principais abordagens adotadas para o estudo da MIC, destaca-se aquela realizada em estruturas consistindo de camadas alternadas de silício amorfo e filmes metálicos, por exemplo. Conseqüentemente, concluiu-se que a difusão de átomos do semicondutor para o metal (e/ou vice-versa) é o mecanismo responsável pela cristalização. Esta explicação fenomenológica, entretanto, não considera os mecanismos microscópicos que provocam a cristalização à baixa temperatura. Tendo isto por base, este trabalho diz respeito a uma abordagem diferente e complementar para a investigação do processo de MIC, através da inserção de uma quantidade controlada e homogeneamente distribuída de átomos de metal na rede amorfa. Para este estudo, filmes de silício amorfo dopados com diferentes concentrações de Ni e possuindo diferentes espessuras, depositados em substratos de c-Si, c-Ge, quartzo cristalino e vidro foram preparados pela técnica de sputtering de rádio freqüência, em uma atmosfera controlada de argônio. Com o objetivo de se investigar a influência exercida pela estrutura atômica nos mecanismos de cristalização destes filmes, todos foram submetidos a tratamentos térmicos cumulativos até 1000 oC. Para isto, os filmes foram caracterizados pelas técnicas de espalhamento Raman, transmissão óptica, EDS (energy dispersive spectrometry) e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM). Os resultados experimentais indicam que a quantidade de Ni, a espessura e a natureza do substrato determinam a temperatura para o qual se inicia a cristalização dos filmes de a-Si, e que a espessura e a presença de Ni têm efeito direto sobre as propriedades ópticas dos filmes. Estudos preliminares utilizando-se as técnicas de microscopia de força atômica (AFM) e Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) também foram feitos. / Due to their great technological potential (solar cells, thin film transistors, etc.), the study of amorphous silicon (a-Si) is attracting the attention of the scientific community since the 70s. More recently, such interest was renewed with the development of the Metal-induced Crystallization (MIC) technique, because of considerable interest in low-temperature formation of crystalline silicon (c-Si). Amongst the principal approaches to the study of MIC, stand out that performed on structures consisting of alternating layers of amorphous silicon and metal films, for example. Consequently, they conclude that the diffusion of semiconductor atoms into the metal (and/or vice-versa) is the mechanism responsible for the crystallization. This phenomenological explanation, however, does not consider the microscopic mechanisms that provoke the low temperature crystallization. Based on the above ideas, this work refers to a different and complementary approach to investigate the MIC process, by the insertion of a controlled and homogeneously distributed amount of metal atoms in the amorphous network. For this study, amorphous silicon films doped with different Ni concentrations and having different thicknesses, deposited on c-Si, c-Ge, crystalline quartz and glass substrates were prepared by the radio frequency sputtering technique in a controlled atmosphere of argon. In order to investigate the influence exerted by the atomic structure on the crystallization mechanisms of these films, all of them have been submitted to cumulative thermal annealing treatments up to 1000 C. To that aim, the films were investigated by Raman scattering, optical transmission, energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The experimental results indicate that the Ni content, the thickness and the nature of the substrate determines the crystallization temperature onset of the a-Si films, and that the thickness and the presence of Ni have direct effect on the optical properties of the films. Preliminary studies using the atomic force microscopy (AFM) and Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) techniques have also been carried out.

Devido às suas potenciais aplicações tecnológicas (células solares, transistores de filme fino TFT, etc.), o estudo do silício amorfo (a-Si) tem despertado o interesse da comunidade científica desde o final da década de 70. Mais recentemente, este interesse foi renovado com o desenvolvimento da técnica de cristalização induzida por metal (Metal-induced Crystallization MIC), por causa do considerável interesse na obtenção do silício cristalino (c-Si) a baixas temperaturas. Dentre as principais abordagens adotadas para o estudo da MIC, destaca-se aquela realizada em estruturas consistindo de camadas alternadas de silício amorfo e filmes metálicos, por exemplo. Conseqüentemente, concluiu-se que a difusão de átomos do semicondutor para o metal (e/ou vice-versa) é o mecanismo responsável pela cristalização. Esta explicação fenomenológica, entretanto, não considera os mecanismos microscópicos que provocam a cristalização à baixa temperatura. Tendo isto por base, este trabalho diz respeito a uma abordagem diferente e complementar para a investigação do processo de MIC, através da inserção de uma quantidade controlada e homogeneamente distribuída de átomos de metal na rede amorfa. Para este estudo, filmes de silício amorfo dopados com diferentes concentrações de Ni e possuindo diferentes espessuras, depositados em substratos de c-Si, c-Ge, quartzo cristalino e vidro foram preparados pela técnica de sputtering de rádio freqüência, em uma atmosfera controlada de argônio. Com o objetivo de se investigar a influência exercida pela estrutura atômica nos mecanismos de cristalização destes filmes, todos foram submetidos a tratamentos térmicos cumulativos até 1000 oC. Para isto, os filmes foram caracterizados pelas técnicas de espalhamento Raman, transmissão óptica, EDS (energy dispersive spectrometry) e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM). Os resultados experimentais indicam que a quantidade de Ni, a espessura e a natureza do substrato determinam a temperatura para o qual se inicia a cristalização dos filmes de a-Si, e que a espessura e a presença de Ni têm efeito direto sobre as propriedades ópticas dos filmes. Estudos preliminares utilizando-se as técnicas de microscopia de força atômica (AFM) e Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) também foram feitos. / Due to their great technological potential (solar cells, thin film transistors, etc.), the study of amorphous silicon (a-Si) is attracting the attention of the scientific community since the 70s. More recently, such interest was renewed with the development of the Metal-induced Crystallization (MIC) technique, because of considerable interest in low-temperature formation of crystalline silicon (c-Si). Amongst the principal approaches to the study of MIC, stand out that performed on structures consisting of alternating layers of amorphous silicon and metal films, for example. Consequently, they conclude that the diffusion of semiconductor atoms into the metal (and/or vice-versa) is the mechanism responsible for the crystallization. This phenomenological explanation, however, does not consider the microscopic mechanisms that provoke the low temperature crystallization. Based on the above ideas, this work refers to a different and complementary approach to investigate the MIC process, by the insertion of a controlled and homogeneously distributed amount of metal atoms in the amorphous network. For this study, amorphous silicon films doped with different Ni concentrations and having different thicknesses, deposited on c-Si, c-Ge, crystalline quartz and glass substrates were prepared by the radio frequency sputtering technique in a controlled atmosphere of argon. In order to investigate the influence exerted by the atomic structure on the crystallization mechanisms of these films, all of them have been submitted to cumulative thermal annealing treatments up to 1000 C. To that aim, the films were investigated by Raman scattering, optical transmission, energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The experimental results indicate that the Ni content, the thickness and the nature of the substrate determines the crystallization temperature onset of the a-Si films, and that the thickness and the presence of Ni have direct effect on the optical properties of the films. Preliminary studies using the atomic force microscopy (AFM) and Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) techniques have also been carried out.

A new cluster tool for in situ real-time processing and depth-resolved compositional, structural and optical characterization of thin films at temperatures from -100 to 800 °C is described. The implemented techniques comprise magnetron sputtering, ion irradiation, Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, Raman spectroscopy and spectroscopic ellipsometry. The capability of the cluster tool is demonstrated for a layer stack MgO/ amorphous Si (~60 nm)/ Ag (~30 nm), deposited at room temperature and crystallized with partial layer exchange by heating up to 650°C. Its initial and final composition, stacking order and structure were monitored in situ in real time and a reaction progress was defined as a function of time and temperature.

<p>In this thesis we report on the metal-mediated-thermally induced changes of the structural and optical properties of hydrogenated amorphous silicon deposited by hot-wire CVD, where aluminium and nickel were used to induce crystallization. The metal-coated amorphous silicon was subjected to a thermal annealing regime of between 150 and 520&deg / C. The structural measurements, obtained by Raman spectroscopy, show partial crystallization occurring at 350 &deg / C. At the higher annealing temperatures of 450&deg / C and 520&deg / C complete crystallization occurs. Reflection and transmission measurements in the UV-visible range were then used to extract the optical properties. By adopting the effective medium approximation a single optical model could be constructed that could successfully model material that was in different structural phases, irrespective of metal contamination. Changes in the absorption of the material in various stages of transition were confirmed with a directly measured absorption technique, and the modelled absorption closely followed the same trends This study forms part of the larger overall solar cell research project, of which the primary aim is to eventually develop a silicon solar panel that optimises the characteristics for best performance.</p>

<p>Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) is second only to crystalline silicon in volume manufacturing of solar cells due to its attractive characteristics for solar panel manufacturing. These are lower manufacturing costs, and the fact that it can be deposited on any surface, and in any shape even on flexible substrates. The metal induced crystallization of hydrogenated amorphous silicon has been the subject of intense scrutiny in recent years. By combining the technology of hydrogenated amorphous silicon thin films with the superior characteristics of c-Si material, it is hoped that more efficient solar cells can be produced. In this thesis we report on the metal-mediated-thermally induced changes of the structural and optical properties of hydrogenated amorphous silicon deposited by hot-wire CVD, where aluminium and nickel were used to induce crystallization. The metal-coated amorphous silicon was subjected to a thermal annealing regime of between 150 and 520&deg / C. The structural measurements, obtained by Raman spectroscopy, show partial crystallization occurring at 350 &deg / C. At the higher annealing temperatures of 450&deg / C and 520&deg / C complete crystallization occurs. Reflection and transmission measurements in the UV-visible range were then used to extract the optical properties. By adopting the effective medium approximation a single optical model could be constructed that couldsuccessfully model material that was in different structural phases, irrespective of metal contamination. Changes in the absorption of the material in various stages of transition were confirmed with a directly measured absorption technique, and the modelled absorption closely followed the same trends This study forms part of the larger overall solar cell research project, of which the primary aim is to eventually develop a silicon solar panel that optimises the characteristics for best performance.</p>

<p>Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) is second only to crystalline silicon in volume manufacturing of solar cells due to its attractive characteristics for solar panel manufacturing. These are lower manufacturing costs, and the fact that it can be deposited on any surface, and in any shape even on flexible substrates. The metal induced crystallization of hydrogenated amorphous silicon has been the subject of intense scrutiny in recent years. By combining the technology of hydrogenated amorphous silicon thin films with the superior characteristics of c-Si material, it is hoped that more efficient solar cells can be produced. In this thesis we report on the metal-mediated-thermally induced changes of the structural and optical properties of hydrogenated amorphous silicon deposited by hot-wire CVD, where aluminium and nickel were used to induce crystallization. The metal-coated amorphous silicon was subjected to a thermal annealing regime of between 150 and 520&deg / C. The structural measurements, obtained by Raman spectroscopy, show partial crystallization occurring at 350 &deg / C. At the higher annealing temperatures of 450&deg / C and 520&deg / C complete crystallization occurs. Reflection and transmission measurements in the UV-visible range were then used to extract the optical properties. By adopting the effective medium approximation a single optical model could be constructed that couldsuccessfully model material that was in different structural phases, irrespective of metal contamination. Changes in the absorption of the material in various stages of transition were confirmed with a directly measured absorption technique, and the modelled absorption closely followed the same trends This study forms part of the larger overall solar cell research project, of which the primary aim is to eventually develop a silicon solar panel that optimises the characteristics for best performance.</p>

<p>In this thesis we report on the metal-mediated-thermally induced changes of the structural and optical properties of hydrogenated amorphous silicon deposited by hot-wire CVD, where aluminium and nickel were used to induce crystallization. The metal-coated amorphous silicon was subjected to a thermal annealing regime of between 150 and 520&deg / C. The structural measurements, obtained by Raman spectroscopy, show partial crystallization occurring at 350 &deg / C. At the higher annealing temperatures of 450&deg / C and 520&deg / C complete crystallization occurs. Reflection and transmission measurements in the UV-visible range were then used to extract the optical properties. By adopting the effective medium approximation a single optical model could be constructed that could successfully model material that was in different structural phases, irrespective of metal contamination. Changes in the absorption of the material in various stages of transition were confirmed with a directly measured absorption technique, and the modelled absorption closely followed the same trends This study forms part of the larger overall solar cell research project, of which the primary aim is to eventually develop a silicon solar panel that optimises the characteristics for best performance.</p>

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / In this thesis we report on the metal-mediated-thermally induced changes of the structural and optical properties of hydrogenated amorphous silicon deposited by hot-wire CVD, where aluminium and nickel were used to induce crystallization. The metal-coated amorphous silicon was subjected to a thermal annealing regime of between 150 and 520°C. The structural measurements, obtained by Raman spectroscopy, show partial crystallization occurring at 350 °C. At the higher annealing temperatures of 450°C and 520°C complete crystallization occurs. Reflection and transmission measurements in the UV-visible range were then used to extract the optical properties. By adopting the effective medium approximation a single optical model could be constructed that could successfully model material that was in different structural phases, irrespective of metal contamination. Changes in the absorption of the material in various stages of transition were confirmed with a directly measured absorption technique, and the modelled absorption closely followed the same trends This study forms part of the larger overall solar cell research project, of which the primary aim is to eventually develop a silicon solar panel that optimises the characteristics for best performance. / South Africa

Transition metal interface effects of on the crystallization of carbon and silicon were investigated. The graphitization of carbon was studied by ion beam sputter deposition of atomic carbon onto a nickel surface at temperatures ranging from room temperature to 550 °C. The resulting films were characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, nuclear reaction analysis combined with Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, Raman spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy. A temperature-induced and a nickel-induced effect on the graphitic ordering is demonstrated. The carbon films showed a two layered structure: directly on the nickel surface up to 8 monolayers of graphitic carbon, further deposited carbon formed less ordered structures, preferably perpendicular to the surface. The results are discussed on the basis of hyperthermal atom deposition, surface diffusion, metal-induced crystallization and dissolution-precipitation. The analysis points to a dominating role of surface diffusion-assisted crystallization in the carbon ordering process. The kinetics of silver-induced crystallization of amorphous silicon were studied in a series of isothermal annealing experiments at 350 °C, 400 °C, 450 °C and 500 °C. The annealing process was monitored in situ employing Raman spectroscopy and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry from which time resolved information on the phase transformation and hence the kinetics are obtained. The grain structure of the crystallized silicon film was investigated with optical and scanning electron microscopy which reveals grain diameters of 5 to 8 µm. The small scale crystallinity was measured with X-ray diffraction and crystal domain sizes from 20 to 50 nm were observed. The phase transformation kinetics are discussed based on the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov theory. The analysis points to a two-dimensional, diffusion limited process with fast Avrami-type nucleation and an activation energy of 0.8 eV/at.:Contents 1. Introduction 2. Metal-Induced Crystallization 2.1. Introduction and State of the Art of Metal-Induced Crystalliza-tion 2.2. Thermodynamics of Metal-Induced Crystallization 2.3. Kinetics of Metal-Induced Crystallization 3. Ion Beam Analysis 3.1. Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry 3.2. Nuclear Reaction Analysis 4. Raman Spectroscopy 4.1. Light Scattering in Solids 4.2. Theory 4.2.1. The Raman Spectrum of Graphitic Carbon 4.2.2. The Silicon Raman Spectrum 5. The Cluster Tool at the Ion Beam Center 5.1. General Concept 5.2. Sputtering Chamber 5.3. The Environmental Chamber 5.4. The Analysis Chamber 5.5. The Ion Beam Analysis Chamber 5.5.1. The Experimental Setup 6. The Carbon Nickel System 6.1. Experimental Details 6.1.1. Film growth 6.1.2. Characterization 6.2. Results 6.3. Discussion 7. The Silicon Silver System 7.1. Experimental 7.1.1. Film Preparation 7.1.2. In Situ Raman Spectroscopy 7.1.3. In Situ Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry 7.2. Results 7.2.1. Raman Spectroscopy 7.2.2. Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry 7.2.3. X-ray Diffraction 7.2.4. Optical and Scanning Electron Microscopy 7.3. Discussion 8. Conclusion and Outlook A. Appendix A.1. Spectroscopic Lineshapes A.1.1. The Lorentzian Lineshape A.1.2. The Breit-Wigner-Fano Lineshape A.1.3. The Doniach-Sunjic Lineshape A.1.4. The Gaussian Lineshape A.1.5. The Voigt Lineshape A.2. Statistcial Distribution Functions A.2.1. The Gamma Distribution Bibliography / Der Einfluss von Übergangsmetallkontaktflächen auf die Kristallisation von Kohlenstoff und Silizium wurde untersucht. Dazu wurde Kohlenstoff bei Temperaturen von Raumtemperatur bis 550 °C auf Nickel mittels Ionenstrahl-Sputtern abgeschieden. Die so erzeugten Filme wurden mit Röntgenphotoelektronen Spektroskopie, Kernreaktionsanalyse kombiniert mit Rutherford Rückstreu Spektrometrie, Raman Spektroskopie und Transmissions-Elektronenmikroskopie charakterisiert. Ein Nickel- und ein Temperatureffekt auf den Graphitisierungsprozess wird nachgewiesen. Die Kohlenstofffilme zeigten einen zweilagigen Aufbau: Direkt auf der Nickeloberfläche bis zu 8 Monolagen graphitischen Kohlenstoffs, weiterer abgeschiedener Kohlenstoff bildet weniger geordnete Strukturen, die bevorzugt senkrecht zur Oberfläche ausgerichtet sind. Die Ergebnisse werden auf Basis von hyperthermischer, atomarer Abscheidung, Oberflächendiffusion, Metall-induzierte Kristallisation und Lösung-Ausfällung diskutiert. Die Analysen deuten auf eine dominante Rolle der Oberflächendiffusion im Graphitisierungsprozess hin. Die Kinetik der Silber-induzierten Kristallisation von amorphen Silizium wurde in einer Reihe von isothermalen Temperexperimenten bei 350 °C, 400 °C, 450 °C und 500 °C untersucht. Der Tempervorgang wurde mit in situ Raman Spektroskopie und in situ Rutherford Rückstreu Spektrometrie charakterisiert, wodurch zeitaufgelöste Information über den Phasenübergang und damit die Kinetik gewonnen wurden. Das Gefüge der entstandenen Siliziumschichten wurde mit optischer und Rasterelektronenmikroskopie untersucht, welche Korndurchmesser von 5 bis 8 µm zeigten. Die Kristallinität wurde mit Röntgendiffraktometrie analysiert. Hierdurch wurden Kristallitgrößen von 20 bis 50 nm bestimmt. Die Kinetik des Phasenüberganges wird anhand der Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov Theorie diskutiert. Dies deutet auf einen zeidimensionalen, diffusionslimitierten Prozess mit schnell abklingender Avrami-Keimbildung hin. Die Aktivierungsenergie wurde zu 0.8 eV/At. bestimmt.:Contents 1. Introduction 2. Metal-Induced Crystallization 2.1. Introduction and State of the Art of Metal-Induced Crystalliza-tion 2.2. Thermodynamics of Metal-Induced Crystallization 2.3. Kinetics of Metal-Induced Crystallization 3. Ion Beam Analysis 3.1. Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry 3.2. Nuclear Reaction Analysis 4. Raman Spectroscopy 4.1. Light Scattering in Solids 4.2. Theory 4.2.1. The Raman Spectrum of Graphitic Carbon 4.2.2. The Silicon Raman Spectrum 5. The Cluster Tool at the Ion Beam Center 5.1. General Concept 5.2. Sputtering Chamber 5.3. The Environmental Chamber 5.4. The Analysis Chamber 5.5. The Ion Beam Analysis Chamber 5.5.1. The Experimental Setup 6. The Carbon Nickel System 6.1. Experimental Details 6.1.1. Film growth 6.1.2. Characterization 6.2. Results 6.3. Discussion 7. The Silicon Silver System 7.1. Experimental 7.1.1. Film Preparation 7.1.2. In Situ Raman Spectroscopy 7.1.3. In Situ Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry 7.2. Results 7.2.1. Raman Spectroscopy 7.2.2. Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry 7.2.3. X-ray Diffraction 7.2.4. Optical and Scanning Electron Microscopy 7.3. Discussion 8. Conclusion and Outlook A. Appendix A.1. Spectroscopic Lineshapes A.1.1. The Lorentzian Lineshape A.1.2. The Breit-Wigner-Fano Lineshape A.1.3. The Doniach-Sunjic Lineshape A.1.4. The Gaussian Lineshape A.1.5. The Voigt Lineshape A.2. Statistcial Distribution Functions A.2.1. The Gamma Distribution Bibliography