<p>The understanding of effects of chemical exposure in nature is lagging behind. Predictions of harmful effects of chemicals on aquatic organisms rely mainly on ecotoxicity tests. To improve the understanding of the biological linkage between the cellular and organismal responses to a chemical in an ecotoxicological test, the major aim of this doctoral thesis was to investigate the usefulness of two biochemical endpoints, contents of RNA and ecdysteroids, by incorporating them with life-history traits of copepods (Crustacea). To do so, the two methods needed to be established at our laboratory. Both biochemical methods are more commonly used in basic biological research, but I here present its usefulness in ecotoxicological testing. It was found that individual RNA content as a biochemical endpoint was significantly altered in the brackish water harpacticoid copepod Nitocra spinipes when exposed to the pesticide Lindane (paper IV) and low concentrations (0.16<g . L-1) of the pharmaceutical Simvastatin (paper I) during partial life cycle tests. However, the RNA content was insensitive as endpoint in the fresh water harpacticoid Attheyella crassa during multigenerational exposure (2 – 3 generations) to naturally contaminated sediments (paper III). The second biochemical endpoint, ecdysteroid content (a crustacean growth-hormone), was shown to be a useful tool for ecotoxicological studies using N. spinipes (paper IV), as well as for increasing the understanding of lipid turnover and reproduction of the marine calanoid copepod Calanus finmarchicus (paper V). In paper I and IV, I present a balanced ecotoxicological test, useful for substances with suspected developmental disruptive effects. In this type of test, a balance between test adequacy, exposure time, and costs has been proven useful. Further, the reliability of tests (paper II) with N. spinipes was increased by optimizing its food regime. In paper II, 25 different combinations of micro-algae were tested during short- and long time exposure, and a suitable food source (Rhodomonas salina) was identified, whilst poorer development and reproduction, malformations, and even mortality was induced by other algae. In conclusion, my studies provide useful tools for ecotoxicological testing, as well as for basic understanding of developmental biology of different copepod species.</p>

The understanding of effects of chemical exposure in nature is lagging behind. Predictions of harmful effects of chemicals on aquatic organisms rely mainly on ecotoxicity tests. To improve the understanding of the biological linkage between the cellular and organismal responses to a chemical in an ecotoxicological test, the major aim of this doctoral thesis was to investigate the usefulness of two biochemical endpoints, contents of RNA and ecdysteroids, by incorporating them with life-history traits of copepods (Crustacea). To do so, the two methods needed to be established at our laboratory. Both biochemical methods are more commonly used in basic biological research, but I here present its usefulness in ecotoxicological testing. It was found that individual RNA content as a biochemical endpoint was significantly altered in the brackish water harpacticoid copepod Nitocra spinipes when exposed to the pesticide Lindane (paper IV) and low concentrations (0.16&lt;g . L-1) of the pharmaceutical Simvastatin (paper I) during partial life cycle tests. However, the RNA content was insensitive as endpoint in the fresh water harpacticoid Attheyella crassa during multigenerational exposure (2 – 3 generations) to naturally contaminated sediments (paper III). The second biochemical endpoint, ecdysteroid content (a crustacean growth-hormone), was shown to be a useful tool for ecotoxicological studies using N. spinipes (paper IV), as well as for increasing the understanding of lipid turnover and reproduction of the marine calanoid copepod Calanus finmarchicus (paper V). In paper I and IV, I present a balanced ecotoxicological test, useful for substances with suspected developmental disruptive effects. In this type of test, a balance between test adequacy, exposure time, and costs has been proven useful. Further, the reliability of tests (paper II) with N. spinipes was increased by optimizing its food regime. In paper II, 25 different combinations of micro-algae were tested during short- and long time exposure, and a suitable food source (Rhodomonas salina) was identified, whilst poorer development and reproduction, malformations, and even mortality was induced by other algae. In conclusion, my studies provide useful tools for ecotoxicological testing, as well as for basic understanding of developmental biology of different copepod species.

<p>Denna uppsats är en kvalitativ studie om hur riskbilden ändras i en övergång från de idag förbjudna bromerade flamskyddsmedlen till andra alternativ med hänsyn till befintlig kunskap och effekter på människa och miljö. Användningen av bromerade flamskyddsmedel BFR har ökat stort sedan 50-talet. Idag uppskattas den totala produktionen till 200 000 ton/år. De fem vanligaste bromerade flamskyddsmedlen och de som främst tas upp i detta arbeta är: Tetrabrombisfenol A (TBBP-A), Penta-, Octa-, och Decabromdifenyleter (PBDE) samt Hexabromcyklodekan (HBCDD). Dessa ämnen finns i många olika varianter där egenskaperna kan variera. Några karaktäristiska egenskaper för dem alla är låg flyktighet, hög löslighet i fett och att de är långlivade. Bromerade flamskyddsmedel används i allt från textilier, byggmaterial till elektriska produkter och i kretskort till datorer. Bromerade flamskyddsmedel kan läcka ut i miljön under hela dess produktionscykel. Varje år frigörs tonvis BFR till den Europeiska miljön.</p><p>PBDE har påträffats i många djur spridda över stora delar av världen. De negativa egenskaperna anses inte tillräckligt starka för ett EU-förbud av TBBP-A, HBCDD och DecaBDE. På djur har dock effekter som beteendeförändringar på råttor, förändringar i hormonbalans och försämrad inlärningsförmåga upptäckts. Halter av BFR har även funnits i mänsklig bröstmjölk, vilket är en stor riskfaktor då små barn och foster är särskilt utsatta. Utvecklingen av det centrala nervsystemet är till exempel mycket komplex där förändrad hormonbalans kan ha förödande konsekvenser.</p><p>De fem Svenska myndigheter som har kontaktas anser alla att användningen av bromerade flamskyddsmedel är problematiskt men för att minska den risken krävs främst åtgärder på EU nivå. De olika verkens uppdrag har varierande inriktningar men ska samtliga antigen arbeta för ökad säkerhet, ökad information eller för en hållbar samhällsutveckling – något som försvåras av det faktum att användningen av BFR medför en rad osäkerheter. Det finns många faktorer som kan verka för en ökad, respektive en minskad användning av BFR. Lagar och förordningar såsom REACH och RoHS direktivet kan verka hämmande på användningen samtidigt som starka brandskyddskrav och lobbying kan göra att marknaden istället växer. Det finns alternativ till bromerade flamskyddsmedel både tekniska lösningar där säkerheten finns i produktens utformning men även nya tekniker att flamskydda plaster.</p><p>Slutsatsen är att; risken minskar i och med förbud som förbjuder likartade ämnen, dock inte tillräckligt snabbt. Kunskapsnivån stiger när det gäller befintliga ämnen men när det gäller bromerade alternativ så finns det fortfarande för lite kunskap.</p> / <p>This paper is a qualitative study about the changing image of risk when the use of brominated flame retardants BFR goes from prohibited ones, to alternative flame retardants, with the account of existing knowledge and the effects on humans and the environment. The use of brominated flame retardants has been going through a large increase since the 1950s. Today the global production estimates 200 000 ton each year. The five most common BFR and those the focus lay on in this paper are: Tetrabromobisphenol A TBBP-A, Penta-, Octa- and Decabromodiphenylether (PBDE) and Hexabromocyclododecane HBCDD. These substances are all exist in many different variants where the properties could vary. Some characteristic properties for all of them are low general volatility but high solubility in fat and that they are persistent. BFR are used in many different areas like textiles, building material, electrical products and in printed circuit cards for computers. BFR can leak out during the products whole life-cycle. Each year, tonnes of BFR release to the European environment.</p><p>PBDE have been discovered in animals, scattered over big parts of the world. The evidence of the negative effects is not considered to be strong enough for a full ban of TPPP-A, HBCDD or DecaBDE in the European Union. However effects like impairing learning functions, changes in the spontaneous behaviour and different hormone levels have been detected in tests on laboratory animals. Levels of BFR have also been found in human breast milk. This is a big risk factor because small children and embryos are particularly sensitive. The neurological development is for example very complex and a changing hormone level could have devastating consequences.</p><p>All the five Swedish authorities that have been contacted in this paper consider the usage of brominated flame retardants as a problem and have the opinion that the solution lay in measures in a European Union level. The agencies have different commissions but all of them work, either for an increased security and information level, or for a sustainable society development. The fact that the use of BFR involves many insecurities, make their tasks even more difficult to reach. Different circumstances can lead to either an increase or a decrease usage of BFR. Legislation and directives can inhibit the use of BFR whereas lobbying and fire safety demands could have the opposite effect. Alternative fire retardants have been developed; both technical solutions where the safety lay in the design of the product but also new way of protect plastics from fires.</p><p>The conclusion is; the risk will decrease if legislation prohibits a whole group of chemicals, but not fast enough. The level of knowledge about the existing chemicals is rising but the knowledge about the brominated options is still to low.</p>

Denna uppsats är en kvalitativ studie om hur riskbilden ändras i en övergång från de idag förbjudna bromerade flamskyddsmedlen till andra alternativ med hänsyn till befintlig kunskap och effekter på människa och miljö. Användningen av bromerade flamskyddsmedel BFR har ökat stort sedan 50-talet. Idag uppskattas den totala produktionen till 200 000 ton/år. De fem vanligaste bromerade flamskyddsmedlen och de som främst tas upp i detta arbeta är: Tetrabrombisfenol A (TBBP-A), Penta-, Octa-, och Decabromdifenyleter (PBDE) samt Hexabromcyklodekan (HBCDD). Dessa ämnen finns i många olika varianter där egenskaperna kan variera. Några karaktäristiska egenskaper för dem alla är låg flyktighet, hög löslighet i fett och att de är långlivade. Bromerade flamskyddsmedel används i allt från textilier, byggmaterial till elektriska produkter och i kretskort till datorer. Bromerade flamskyddsmedel kan läcka ut i miljön under hela dess produktionscykel. Varje år frigörs tonvis BFR till den Europeiska miljön. PBDE har påträffats i många djur spridda över stora delar av världen. De negativa egenskaperna anses inte tillräckligt starka för ett EU-förbud av TBBP-A, HBCDD och DecaBDE. På djur har dock effekter som beteendeförändringar på råttor, förändringar i hormonbalans och försämrad inlärningsförmåga upptäckts. Halter av BFR har även funnits i mänsklig bröstmjölk, vilket är en stor riskfaktor då små barn och foster är särskilt utsatta. Utvecklingen av det centrala nervsystemet är till exempel mycket komplex där förändrad hormonbalans kan ha förödande konsekvenser. De fem Svenska myndigheter som har kontaktas anser alla att användningen av bromerade flamskyddsmedel är problematiskt men för att minska den risken krävs främst åtgärder på EU nivå. De olika verkens uppdrag har varierande inriktningar men ska samtliga antigen arbeta för ökad säkerhet, ökad information eller för en hållbar samhällsutveckling – något som försvåras av det faktum att användningen av BFR medför en rad osäkerheter. Det finns många faktorer som kan verka för en ökad, respektive en minskad användning av BFR. Lagar och förordningar såsom REACH och RoHS direktivet kan verka hämmande på användningen samtidigt som starka brandskyddskrav och lobbying kan göra att marknaden istället växer. Det finns alternativ till bromerade flamskyddsmedel både tekniska lösningar där säkerheten finns i produktens utformning men även nya tekniker att flamskydda plaster. Slutsatsen är att; risken minskar i och med förbud som förbjuder likartade ämnen, dock inte tillräckligt snabbt. Kunskapsnivån stiger när det gäller befintliga ämnen men när det gäller bromerade alternativ så finns det fortfarande för lite kunskap. / This paper is a qualitative study about the changing image of risk when the use of brominated flame retardants BFR goes from prohibited ones, to alternative flame retardants, with the account of existing knowledge and the effects on humans and the environment. The use of brominated flame retardants has been going through a large increase since the 1950s. Today the global production estimates 200 000 ton each year. The five most common BFR and those the focus lay on in this paper are: Tetrabromobisphenol A TBBP-A, Penta-, Octa- and Decabromodiphenylether (PBDE) and Hexabromocyclododecane HBCDD. These substances are all exist in many different variants where the properties could vary. Some characteristic properties for all of them are low general volatility but high solubility in fat and that they are persistent. BFR are used in many different areas like textiles, building material, electrical products and in printed circuit cards for computers. BFR can leak out during the products whole life-cycle. Each year, tonnes of BFR release to the European environment. PBDE have been discovered in animals, scattered over big parts of the world. The evidence of the negative effects is not considered to be strong enough for a full ban of TPPP-A, HBCDD or DecaBDE in the European Union. However effects like impairing learning functions, changes in the spontaneous behaviour and different hormone levels have been detected in tests on laboratory animals. Levels of BFR have also been found in human breast milk. This is a big risk factor because small children and embryos are particularly sensitive. The neurological development is for example very complex and a changing hormone level could have devastating consequences. All the five Swedish authorities that have been contacted in this paper consider the usage of brominated flame retardants as a problem and have the opinion that the solution lay in measures in a European Union level. The agencies have different commissions but all of them work, either for an increased security and information level, or for a sustainable society development. The fact that the use of BFR involves many insecurities, make their tasks even more difficult to reach. Different circumstances can lead to either an increase or a decrease usage of BFR. Legislation and directives can inhibit the use of BFR whereas lobbying and fire safety demands could have the opposite effect. Alternative fire retardants have been developed; both technical solutions where the safety lay in the design of the product but also new way of protect plastics from fires. The conclusion is; the risk will decrease if legislation prohibits a whole group of chemicals, but not fast enough. The level of knowledge about the existing chemicals is rising but the knowledge about the brominated options is still to low.

<p>Deposition remains the most common form of waste disposal in many parts of the world. As a terminus of the products consumed in our society a landfill may contain virtually all sorts of man-made chemicals. Despite this, the harmfulness of landfill leachate has not been extensively evaluated in feral organisms in the environment. In a leachate-contaminated lake, Molnbyggen, in Sweden, our studies reported a low percent of sexually mature (SM) female perch (<i>Perca fluviatilis</i>) that had decreased plasma androgen levels, decreased brain aromatase activity, distinctive sores and fin erosion. The impairments were attributed to unidentified compound(s) present in the leachate. In one out of four other investigated leachate-contaminated lakes, the low percent of SM female perch had reduced plasma sex steroid levels and similar sores as perch in Molnbyggen. The biochemical mechanism causing the disorders was investigated in order to establish a connection between the impairments and possible causative compound(s). Plasma levels of progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone were unaffected. Ovarian 17,20-lyase activity was decreased while levels of biliary steroid conjugates and hepatic testosterone UDP-glucuronosyltransferase activity did not differ between exposed and reference SM fish. Furthermore, the decreased brain aromatase activity seems to be a secondary effect; possibly a result of low substrate availability. Altogether, this suggests a possible disruption in the synthesis of androgens, knowledge that could be used as a tool in biomarker-directed fractionation studies to pinpoint compound(s). Molnbyggen sediment extracts decreased the testosterone and estradiol concentrations in whole-body homogenates of zebrafish (<i>Danio rerio</i>) after a three week exposure period. This suggests that compound(s) with the potency to alter endocrine function are present in the sediment. Although the first steps have been taken towards identifying compound(s) responsible for this kind of reproductive impairments, they still remain unidentified. Measures have to be taken to identify harmful chemicals in our society, to reduce their number, and to minimise their uncontrolled dispersal.</p>

<p>According to the World Health Organization(WHO) the most efficient and cost-effective strategies in the global fight of malaria are the Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) and the Insecticide Treated Nets ITNs). However, since the strategies include the use of synthetic insecticides, WHO reports that they sometimes meet opposition in the society. In a Global Malaria Programme report from 20061, WHO describes that concerns in the community regarding the safety of the IRS hinder its effective implementation. WHO states that the social acceptability of ITNs2 has to increase. This study aims at investigating if and where in the Ugandan society the antimalarial strategies meet opposition. The study analyzes whether authorities, non-governmental organizations and caretakers in one region in Uganda reject the antimalarial strategies recommended by WHO. The aim is further to investigate where focus should be put in order to meet the</p><p>opposition (if any) to current strategies and thus facilitate the implementation of the strategies. The methodology used is an empirical approach based on interviews with officials at authorities, representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and caretakers in the slum areas in Kawempe Division, which is an area highly exposed to malaria, in Uganda. The results show that the authorities and the NGOs in this study accept the current strategies but believe that they are not fully accepted by caretakers. Further, the authorities and the NGOs point out that current strategies, mainly IRS, meet great resistance among politicians and within the agricultural and environmental sector. Nevertheless, the majority of the caretakers in the interviews does accept the strategies and give other reasons for not having them implemented in their houses. Many of the households do not have the money neither to buy the ITNs nor to have the IRS implemented in their houses. Thus, this study implies that the opposition to the current strategies is not among authorities, NGOs or caretakers but in the political, environmental and agricultural</p><p>sphere. In order to fight malaria in the study area, WHO and stakeholders have to work with the change of attitudes among politicians and stakeholders within the environmental and agricultural sector in Uganda. They also have to provide poor households with ITNs or IRS for free, since lack of money is the reason for the studied group of caretakers not having the recommended strategies implemented in their houses.</p>

Deposition remains the most common form of waste disposal in many parts of the world. As a terminus of the products consumed in our society a landfill may contain virtually all sorts of man-made chemicals. Despite this, the harmfulness of landfill leachate has not been extensively evaluated in feral organisms in the environment. In a leachate-contaminated lake, Molnbyggen, in Sweden, our studies reported a low percent of sexually mature (SM) female perch (Perca fluviatilis) that had decreased plasma androgen levels, decreased brain aromatase activity, distinctive sores and fin erosion. The impairments were attributed to unidentified compound(s) present in the leachate. In one out of four other investigated leachate-contaminated lakes, the low percent of SM female perch had reduced plasma sex steroid levels and similar sores as perch in Molnbyggen. The biochemical mechanism causing the disorders was investigated in order to establish a connection between the impairments and possible causative compound(s). Plasma levels of progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone were unaffected. Ovarian 17,20-lyase activity was decreased while levels of biliary steroid conjugates and hepatic testosterone UDP-glucuronosyltransferase activity did not differ between exposed and reference SM fish. Furthermore, the decreased brain aromatase activity seems to be a secondary effect; possibly a result of low substrate availability. Altogether, this suggests a possible disruption in the synthesis of androgens, knowledge that could be used as a tool in biomarker-directed fractionation studies to pinpoint compound(s). Molnbyggen sediment extracts decreased the testosterone and estradiol concentrations in whole-body homogenates of zebrafish (Danio rerio) after a three week exposure period. This suggests that compound(s) with the potency to alter endocrine function are present in the sediment. Although the first steps have been taken towards identifying compound(s) responsible for this kind of reproductive impairments, they still remain unidentified. Measures have to be taken to identify harmful chemicals in our society, to reduce their number, and to minimise their uncontrolled dispersal.

According to the World Health Organization(WHO) the most efficient and cost-effective strategies in the global fight of malaria are the Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) and the Insecticide Treated Nets ITNs). However, since the strategies include the use of synthetic insecticides, WHO reports that they sometimes meet opposition in the society. In a Global Malaria Programme report from 20061, WHO describes that concerns in the community regarding the safety of the IRS hinder its effective implementation. WHO states that the social acceptability of ITNs2 has to increase. This study aims at investigating if and where in the Ugandan society the antimalarial strategies meet opposition. The study analyzes whether authorities, non-governmental organizations and caretakers in one region in Uganda reject the antimalarial strategies recommended by WHO. The aim is further to investigate where focus should be put in order to meet the opposition (if any) to current strategies and thus facilitate the implementation of the strategies. The methodology used is an empirical approach based on interviews with officials at authorities, representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and caretakers in the slum areas in Kawempe Division, which is an area highly exposed to malaria, in Uganda. The results show that the authorities and the NGOs in this study accept the current strategies but believe that they are not fully accepted by caretakers. Further, the authorities and the NGOs point out that current strategies, mainly IRS, meet great resistance among politicians and within the agricultural and environmental sector. Nevertheless, the majority of the caretakers in the interviews does accept the strategies and give other reasons for not having them implemented in their houses. Many of the households do not have the money neither to buy the ITNs nor to have the IRS implemented in their houses. Thus, this study implies that the opposition to the current strategies is not among authorities, NGOs or caretakers but in the political, environmental and agricultural sphere. In order to fight malaria in the study area, WHO and stakeholders have to work with the change of attitudes among politicians and stakeholders within the environmental and agricultural sector in Uganda. They also have to provide poor households with ITNs or IRS for free, since lack of money is the reason for the studied group of caretakers not having the recommended strategies implemented in their houses.

<p>In this Masters Thesis emissions to water from diesel engines in pleasure boats when driven with alternative fuels have been investigated. Two alternative fuels, Fischer-Tropsch-diesel (FT-diesel) and a blend of FT-diesel and rapeseed methyl ester (RME) have been compared with diesel of Swedish environmental class 1 (diesel EC1). The alternative fuels have been compared using two older marine diesel engines, and water samples have been taken from the water in the exhaust system before the exhaust compounds reaches the recipient. The water samples have been analysed with gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (GC/MS), to analyse volatile and semi volatile compounds including aldehydes and ketons. To investigate the acute toxicity of the exhaust water a 24 h ecotoxicological test was preformed with the crustacean Artemia fransiscana.</p><p>The results showed considerable differences in emissions of poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and alkylated benzenes. From diesel EC1, the amounts of PAHs and alkylated benzenes were significantly higher than from pure FT-diesel and FT-diesel containing 20 % of RME. Pure FT-diesel generated the lowest amounts of PAH and alkylated benzenes. The FT-diesel containing 20 % RME generated higher amounts of benzene than diesel EC1. FT-diesel and FT-diesel with a 20 % blend of RME generated the same amount of acetone, which in turn was higher than the concentration of acetone in the exhaust water, using diesel EC1. Based on the analysis, FT-diesel is the best alternative from an exhaust emission point-of-view, concerning both the amounts and the difference in chemical composition of the combustion products released into the water.</p><p>The ecotoxicological test showed no effect on the test organism using either of the samples.</p> / <p>Fritidsbåtsintresset är stort i Sverige och båtlivet betyder mycket för många svenskar. Tyvärr är användningen av fritidsbåtar förknippad med en rad miljöproblem. Avgasutsläpp till vatten och luft från fritidsbåtsmotorer påverkar den lokala miljön avsevärt. Gammal teknik med dålig förbränning används fortfarande i stor utsträckning. På kort sikt, innan den gamla tekniken är utbytt, är det viktigt att den äldre motorparken använder miljöanpassade bränslen för att utsläppen till sjöar och hav ska bli så skonsamma som möjligt. Det är dock viktigt att utvärdera miljöpåverkan av dessa alternativa bränslen, så att det verkligen är ett bättre alternativ ur miljösynpunkt.</p><p>I detta examensarbete har utsläpp till vatten från dieselinombordsmotorer vid drift med olika bränslen undersökts. Två miljöanpassade dieselbränslen; FT-diesel (Fischer-Tropsch) och en procentinblandning av rapsmetylester (RME) i FT-diesel, har jämförts med diesel av svensk miljöklass 1 (MK1). Bränslena har testkörts i två äldre, marina dieselmotorer och prover har tagits på det avgasblandade kylvattnet innan det når recipienten. Det avgasblandade kylvattnet har analyserats med avseende på delvis flyktiga och flyktiga föreningar, aldehyder samt ketoner. Analyserna har skett med gaskromatografi och masspektormetri (GC/MS-screening) på externt laboratorium. För att testa avgasvattnets akuta giftighet har även ett akut (24h) ekotoxikologiskt test utförts på kräftdjuret Artemia fransiscana.</p><p>Analysresultatet visade skillnad i utsläpp av polyaromatiska kolväten (PAH) och alkylbensener. Vid körning med diesel MK1 genererades betydligt högre halter av PAH:er och alkylbensener, än vid körning med FT-diesel och FT-diesel med 20 % inblandning av RME. Ren FT-diesel gav de lägsta halterna av PAH:er och alkylbensener.</p><p>Utsläppshalterna av bensen uppvisade inte lika stor skillnad mellan de olika bränslena. Blandningen FT-diesel med 20 % RME gav lite högre halter bensen än vad diesel MK1 gjorde. Ren FT-diesel uppvisade lägst halt bensen. Utsläpp av aceton visade sig vara lika för FT-diesel och FT-diesel med 20 % RME och gav högre halter än vad diesel MK1 gjorde. Baserat på analysresultaten är FT-diesel det bästa bränslet ur emissionssynpunkt med avseende på vilka ämnen som hamnar i vattenfasen.</p><p>Det ekotoxikologiska testet visade ingen skillnad mellan de olika bränslena. Avgasvatten från bränslena hade inte någon akut toxisk effekt på testdjuret.</p>

<p>This thesis reports the results of biomarker measurements in three environmental monitoring projects. In the first project, which was part of the Swedish national environmental monitoring, biomarkers were measured annually in female perch (<i>Perca fluviatilis</i>) in two background areas in the Baltic Sea during 1988–2000, resulting in a unique 13-year series of measurements. The most important results were a strong decreasing temporal trend in the gonadosomatic index (GSI) and a strong increasing temporal trend in the hepatic ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in the Baltic Proper. In the second project, biomarkers and concentrations of classic pollutants were measured in female perch in the Stockholm recipient 1999–2001. This was the first time a large city was investigated as a point source of pollution, and the gradient was longer and included more stations than customary. Severe pollution conditions in central Stockholm were indicated by the poor health status of the perch: retarded growth, decreased frequency of sexually mature females, low GSI, disturbed visceral fat metabolism, increased hepatic EROD activity, decreased muscle acetylcholinesterase activity, increased frequency of hepatic DNA adducts, and a high concentration of biliary 1-pyrenol. Muscle ΣDDT and ΣPCB were measured as pollution indicators and were 10–28 respectively 12–35 times higher than the background levels in perch from the Baltic Proper. In the Stockholm archipelago two superimposed gradients were found. Whereas the response of several biomarkers consistently decreased with increasing distance from central Stockholm, the response of others first decreased from Stockholm to the middle archipelago and then increased to the open Baltic Sea. The latter biomarkers included the frequency of sexually mature females, GSI, hepatic EROD activity, and hepatic DNA adducts. In the third project, potential toxicity from munitions on the seafloor, at a dumpsite in the Stockholm archipelago, was analysed by the nanoinjection of sediment extracts into newly fertilised rainbow trout (<i>Oncorhynchus mykiss</i>) eggs, followed by the measurement of biomarkers in the developing larvae. No biological effects of the dumped munitions were found. The same stations in the Stockholm archipelago as in the second project were investigated as a positive control. The results of the three projects agreed well, which demonstrated the continuous pollution of the Baltic Sea and the severe pollution conditions and adverse biological effects in central Stockholm. Further investigations are urgently needed to identify which pollutants or other factors are causing the observed biological effects, both in the background areas in the Baltic Sea and in the Stockholm recipient.</p>