CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / O objetivo do presente trabalho à estudar o efeito da energia de soldagem sobre as transformaÃÃes microestruturais e a resistÃncia à corrosÃo na soldagem multipasse do aÃo inoxidÃvel superduplex UNS S32760 pelo processo MIG/MAG. A fim de atingir este objetivo, foram produzidas juntas soldadas variando-se a energia de soldagem nos seguintes nÃveis: 0,5 kJ/mm, 1,0 kJ/mm e 2,0 kJ/mm. Os valores de energia foram baseados em registros de qualificaÃÃo de procedimento de soldagem (RQPS) elaborados e aplicados nas unidades da PETROBRAS, exceto para a condiÃÃo de 2,0 kJ/mm, a qual foi extrapolada. As soldagens foram realizadas em juntas de tubos com 18 mm de espessura, com geometria em âJâ em uma bancada robotizada. Foi realizada uma caracterizaÃÃo microestrutural das regiÃes da Zona Fundida (ZF) e Zona Afetada pelo Calor (ZAC) pelas de Microscopia Ãtica (MO) e Microscopia EletrÃnica de Varredura (MEV). Como caracterÃsticas de resposta, avaliou-se o teor mÃdio de ferrita por anÃlise de imagens. A resistÃncia à corrosÃo foi avaliada pelas tÃcnicas eletroquÃmicas de polarizaÃÃo potenciodinÃmica com soluÃÃes de cloreto de sÃdio em diferentes concentraÃÃes (60g/L, 120g/L e 240g/L), polarizaÃÃo eletroquÃmica com reativaÃÃo potenciocinÃtica cÃclica (EPR-DL), teste eletroquÃmico de temperatura critica de pite seguindo a norma ASTM G150, ensaio de imersÃo em soluÃÃo de cloreto de ferro seguindo a norma ASTM G48 e ensaio de imersÃo em emulsÃes de petrÃleo preparadas com soluÃÃes de cloreto de sÃdio em diferentes concentraÃÃes (60g/L, 120g/L e 240g/L) e diferentes razÃes Ãgua/Ãleo (10%-90%, 30%-70% e 50%-50%). Os resultados indicaram que a energia de soldagem foi o fator que exerceu maior influÃncia sobre o teor mÃdio de ferrita na regiÃo da zona fundida da raiz das juntas. Houve precipitaÃÃes de nitretos de cromo em todas as energias e de fase sigma na energia de 1,0 kJ/mm e 2,0 kJ/mm. Os resultados do ensaio de EPR, assim como os ensaios de CPT mostraram que a zona fundida da energia de 1,0 kJ/mm se mostrou mais susceptÃvel a corrosÃo. Os ensaios de imersÃo seguindo a norma ASTM G48 mostraram que a temperatura onde ocorreu a formaÃÃo de pites com perda de massa considerÃvel quando as amostras entraram em contato com a soluÃÃo de cloreto de ferro foi em 50ÂC para todas as energias. E finalmente os ensaios de imersÃo em emulsÃes de petrÃleo, mostraram novamente que a energia de 1kJ/mm foi a que apresentou uma maior quantidades de pites. / The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of heat imput in multipass welding on microstructural transformations and corrosion resistance of UNS S32760 superduplex stainless steel welded pipe joints by GMAW process. For this purpose, three levels of heat imput (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 kJ/mm) were used. The heat imput values were based on records of welding procedure qualification (RWPQ) drawn up and applied in PETROBRAS units, except for the condition of 2.0 kJ/mm, which was an extrapolation. Weldings had been carried out for pipes with 18 mm thick, with joint geometry of J-groove. All welds were performed using a robotic workbench. The microstructural characterization of the weld regions like Fusion Zone (FZ) and Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) were the performed by Ligth microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The average ferrite content was determined by image analysis and was considerated as a characteristic response. The corrosion resistance was evaluated by electrochemical potentiodynamic polarization in sodium chloride solutions with different concentrations (60 g/L, 120 g/L and 240 g/L) aiming to simulate the concentration of chlorides in water production of oil reservoir of the pre-salt region. The to evaluate the electrochemical potentiokinetic reactivation cyclic of double loop (EPR-DL) corrosion was done to evaluate of susceptibility to corrosion. Electrochemical tests critical temperature for pitting according to ASTM G150, immersion tests in a solution of ferric chloride following the ASTM G48. Immersion tests in oil emulsions prepared with sodium chloride solutions at different concentrations (60 g/L 120 g/L and 240g/L), heated at 60ÂC and different ratio oil/water (10%-90%, 30%-70% and 50%-50%) were conduced. The results indicated that the welding heat imput was the factor that exerted the greatest influence on the average ferrite content in the fusion zone. There were precipitation of chromium nitrides at all heat imputs and sigma phase for the 1.0 kJ/mm and 2.0 kJ/mm. The EPR tests results as well as TCP tests showed that the fusion zone energy of 1.0 kJ/mm was more susceptible to corrosion. The immersion tests according to ASTM G48 showed that the temperature where the formation of pits occurred with considerable mass loss when the samples came in contact with the solution of ferric chloride was 50ÂC for all heat imputs. And finally, the immersion test in oil emulsions, showed again that the 1.0 kJ/mm test sample showed the greater amounts of pitting.

Abstract This thesis studies controlling factors that govern transverse hydrogen cracking in high-strength multipass weld metal (WM). The experiments were concerned with heavy-restraint Y- and U-Groove multipass cracking tests of shielded-metal arc (SMAW) and submerged-arc (SAW) weld metals. Results of tensile tests, hardness surveys, weld residual stress measurements and microstructural investigations are discussed. The analytical phase comprised numerical calculations for analysing the interactions between crack-controlling factors. The objectives were: (i) the assessment of WM hydrogen cracking risk by defining the Crack-No Crack boundary conditions in terms of 'safe line' description giving the desired lower-bound estimates, and (ii) to derive predictive equations capable of giving reliable estimates of the required preheat/interpass temperature T0/Ti for the avoidance of cracking. Hydrogen cracking occurred predominantly in high strength weld metals of Rp0.2 ≈ 580-900 MPa. At intermediate strengths of Rp0.2 ≈ 500-550 MPa, cracking took place in the cases where the holding time from welding to NDT inspection was prolonged to 7 days. Low strength WMs of Rp0.2 ≤ 480 MPa did not exhibit cracking under any conditions examined. Cracking occurrence was, above all, governed by WM tensile strength, weld diffusible hydrogen and weld residual stresses amounting to the yield strength. The appearance of cracking vanished when transferring from 40 to 6 mm thick welds. The implications of the holding time were more significant than anticipated previously. A period of 16 hrs in accordance with SFS-EN 1011 appeared much too short for thick multipass welds. Interpass time and heat input showed no measurable effect on cracking sensitivity, hence being of secondary importance. Equations were derived to assess the weld critical hydrogen content Hcr corresponding to the Crack-No Crack conditions as a function of either weld metal Pcm, yield strength Rp0.2 or weld metal maximum hardness HV5(max). For the calculation of safe T0/Ti estimates, a formula incorporating: (i) WM strength as a linear function of either weld carbon equivalent CET or weld HV5(max), (ii) weld build-up thickness aw in the form of tanh expression and (iii) weld diffusible hydrogen HD in terms of a combined [ln / power law] expression was found descriptive.

Em projetos de oleodutos e gasodutos utilizam-se aços de alta resistência e baixa liga (ARBL), como o aço API 5L X80. Na soldagem multipasse destas tubulações, a zona afetada pelo calor (ZAC) do passe de raiz é submetida a um novo ciclo térmico pelos passes de soldagem subsequentes. Isto resulta em alterações nos valores das propriedades físicas. Nos aços ARBL, a ZAC de grãos grosseiros reaquecida intercriticamente (IC-ZACGG) pode se tornar uma zona frágil localizada, isto é, uma zona com maior dureza. Consequentemente, falhas estruturais podem ocorrer, ocasionando paradas não desejadas no transporte de fluidos. O objetivo deste trabalho é desenvolver uma metodologia baseada no modelo de fontes de calor distribuídas de Mhyr e Gröng, para avaliar o fluxo de calor na soldagem considerando as propriedades físicas dependentes da temperatura. Estender a aplicação desta ferramenta em soldagens multipasses para identificar sub-regiões da ZAC de um passe anterior sendo afetada pela ZAC de passes subsequentes. As isotermas simuladas foram validadas através de medições realizadas em macrografias de juntas soldadas. Os ciclos térmicos simulados foram validados através das temperaturas máximas atingidas e pelos tempos de resfriamento de 800 a 500 ºC (?t8-5) dos ciclos térmicos experimentais. Ao aplicar a metodologia proposta, foi possível delimitar com acurácia as regiões reaquecidas da ZAC e analisar os efeitos dos passes subsequentes em cada uma das sub-regiões da ZAC do passe de raiz. A IC-ZACGG na região do passe de raiz foi localizada, mas não se comportou como zona frágil devido à boa soldabilidade do aço API 5L X80 comprovada pelos ensaios de dureza e de tenacidade ao impacto Charpy-V. / In pipelines projects, the high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels are used, such as the API 5L X80 steel. During the multipass welding of these pipes, the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the root pass is subjected to a new thermal cycle by the subsequent welding passes. This results in changes in the values of the physical properties. In the HSLA steels, the intercritical reheated coarse-grained heat-affected zone (IR-CGHAZ) can become a local brittle zone, that is, a region with greater hardness. Consequently, structural failures could happen, causing undesired shutdowns in fluid transportation. The objective of this work is to develop a methodology based on the distributed heat sources model of Mhyr and Gröng, to evaluate the heat flux in the welding considering the temperature-dependent physical properties. Extend the application of this tool in multipass welds to identify HAZ subregions of a previous pass being affected by the HAZ of subsequent passes. The simulated isotherms were validated through measurements made on macrographs of welded joints. The simulated thermal cycles were validated through the maximum temperatures reached and the cooling times from 800 °C to 500 ºC (?t8-5) of the experimental thermal cycles. By applying the proposed methodology, it was possible to accurately delimit reheated HAZ regions and analyze the effects of subsequent passes in each of the root pass HAZ subregions. The IRCGHAZ in the root pass region was localized, but it did not behave as a brittle zone due to the good weldability of the API 5L X80 steel as proven by the hardness and Charpy-V impact tests.

Os aços inoxidáveis duplex (AIDs) são materiais com um excelente desempenho tanto mecânico como à corrosão. Inúmeras pesquisas tem sido desenvolvidas para aprimorar a soldabilidade destas ligas. Algumas transformações de fase, que são passíveis de ocorrer durante o processo de soldagem, podem prejudicar seriamente o desempenho das juntas. Foram simuladas microestruturas da região da zona afetada pelo calor submetida a temperaturas elevadas (ZACTE), utilizando um modelo proposto de fluxo de calor. Abordaram-se aspectos fundamentais da precipitação de austenita secundária, de nitreto de cromo e as suas interações na ZACTE de soldas multipasse. Finalmente, foram realizados testes de tenacidade e de resistência à corrosão para avaliar o efeito das transformações de fase estudadas no desempenho das juntas soldadas. Os tratamento térmicos e simulações da ZACTE foram realizadas num equipamento GleebleÒ. As microestruturas foram analisadas mediante microscopia ótica e eletrônica de varredura e de transmissão. Junto com a microscopia eletrônica foram realizadas microanálises químicas das fases estudadas. Baseando-se nos resultados obtidos, verificou-se que nem todos os AIDs são susceptíveis de ferritizar. Este fato tem uma grande influência no comportamento metalúrgico e na soldabilidade destes aços. Quanto aos aspectos fundamentais da metalurgia destes aços, observou-se uma estreita interação entre a precipitação da austenita secundária e os nitretos de cromo, chegando-se a propor um mecanismo de nucleação da austenita secundária intragranular a partir dos nitretos. Por último, foi constatado que o efeito deletério da austenita secundária intragranular na resistência à corrosão pode ser evitado mediante a adequada elaboração do procedimento de soldagem. / Duplex stainless steels (DSS) have excellent mechanical and corrosion properties. Many researches have been developed regarding the weldability of these alloys. There are some phase transformations that take place during the welding process, which may impair the welded joint behavior. High temperature heat-affected zone (HTHAZ) microstructures were simulated using a proposed heat flow model. Fundamental aspects of the secondary austenite and chromium nitride precipitation, and its interactions in the HTHAZ of multipass welds, were studied. In addition, toughness and corrosion tests were done to evaluate the influence of the studied phase transformations on the weld behavior. A GleebleÒ system was used to do the heat treatments and HTHAZ simulations. The microstructures were analyzed by means of optic and electron microscopy. Along with the electron microscopy it was done chemical microanalysis of the studied phases. Based on results, it was verified that not all DSSs can be ferritized. This fact has a strong influence on metallurgical behavior and weldability of these alloys. Regarding to the metallurgical fundamental aspects of these steels, it was observed a remarkable interaction between secondary austenite and chromium nitride precipitation. Thus, it was proposed a mechanism of intragranular secondary austenite precipitation from chromium nitrides. It was also verified, how the deleterious effect of intragranular secondary austenite in the corrosion resistance can be avoided by means of appropriate welding procedures.

Les travaux effectués au cours de cette thèse ont pour objectif d’étudier et de modéliser une opération de soudage multipasse d’un acier à haute limite d’élasticité utilisé en construction navale. Dans ce cadre il s’agit de prédire les conséquences métallurgiques et mécaniques du procédé et tout particulièrement la répartition et l’intensité des contraintes résiduelles post- soudage nécessaires pour analyser l’intégrité de la structure navale en service. Deux maquettes représentatives d’un joint d’angle en Té ont permis de caractériser l’évolution des cycles thermiques, de la microstructure et des contraintes résiduelles (estimées par les méthodes du contour et du trou profond) après chaque passe de soudage. La suite de l’étude concerne la caractérisation et la modélisation du comportement thermo-métallurgique et thermo- mécanique des différentes phases apparaissant au cours du soudage. La dernière partie porte sur l’implémentation des modèles retenus dans le code de calcul élément finis Abaqus à l’aide de sous-programmes spécifiques. Une étape de transition d’échelle a permis de décrire le comportement thermomécanique multiphasé de cet acier. Des calculs préliminaires ont été conduits pour valider l’implémentation des modèles sur des cas simples. Différents couplages ont été réalisés, soit une analyse thermique puis thermo-métallurgique, pour estimer la dureté après chaque passe et enfin métallurgique-mécanique pour prédire les contraintes résiduelles pour le procédé de soudage multipasse. Les résultats des calculs éléments finis ont été discutés et comparés aux résultats expérimentaux obtenus dans la première partie de cette étude. / This thesis aims at studying and modeling a multipass welding operation of a high strength steel used in shipbuilding. In this framework, work focus on predicting the metallurgical and mechanical consequences of the process and, in particular, the residual stress distribution after welding. Since residual stresses can be detrimental to the performance of the welded product, their estimation is essential and numerical modelling is useful to predict them. Two welding mock-ups which are representative of a T- joint were used to characterize the evolution of thermal cycles, microstructure and residual stresses (measured by contour method and deep hole drilling) after each welding pass. Metallurgical and mechanical behaviors were thoroughly characterized in order to feed numerical models with reliable constitutive equations. The last part deals with the implementation of the models in the finite element calculation code Abaqus using specific subroutines. A scale transition procedure has been added to describe the thermomechanical multiphase behavior of the steel. Preliminary calculations were carried out for simple cases to validate the implementation of models. Different numerical couplings were made. First a thermal analysis then a thermo-metallurgical analysis, to estimate the hardness after each welding pass. Finally, a metallurgical-mechanical analysis is achieved for the prediction of residual stresses due to multipass welding. The results of the finite element calculations were discussed and compared with the experimental results obtained in the first part of this work.

Os aços inoxidáveis duplex (AIDs) são materiais com um excelente desempenho tanto mecânico como à corrosão. Inúmeras pesquisas tem sido desenvolvidas para aprimorar a soldabilidade destas ligas. Algumas transformações de fase, que são passíveis de ocorrer durante o processo de soldagem, podem prejudicar seriamente o desempenho das juntas. Foram simuladas microestruturas da região da zona afetada pelo calor submetida a temperaturas elevadas (ZACTE), utilizando um modelo proposto de fluxo de calor. Abordaram-se aspectos fundamentais da precipitação de austenita secundária, de nitreto de cromo e as suas interações na ZACTE de soldas multipasse. Finalmente, foram realizados testes de tenacidade e de resistência à corrosão para avaliar o efeito das transformações de fase estudadas no desempenho das juntas soldadas. Os tratamento térmicos e simulações da ZACTE foram realizadas num equipamento GleebleÒ. As microestruturas foram analisadas mediante microscopia ótica e eletrônica de varredura e de transmissão. Junto com a microscopia eletrônica foram realizadas microanálises químicas das fases estudadas. Baseando-se nos resultados obtidos, verificou-se que nem todos os AIDs são susceptíveis de ferritizar. Este fato tem uma grande influência no comportamento metalúrgico e na soldabilidade destes aços. Quanto aos aspectos fundamentais da metalurgia destes aços, observou-se uma estreita interação entre a precipitação da austenita secundária e os nitretos de cromo, chegando-se a propor um mecanismo de nucleação da austenita secundária intragranular a partir dos nitretos. Por último, foi constatado que o efeito deletério da austenita secundária intragranular na resistência à corrosão pode ser evitado mediante a adequada elaboração do procedimento de soldagem. / Duplex stainless steels (DSS) have excellent mechanical and corrosion properties. Many researches have been developed regarding the weldability of these alloys. There are some phase transformations that take place during the welding process, which may impair the welded joint behavior. High temperature heat-affected zone (HTHAZ) microstructures were simulated using a proposed heat flow model. Fundamental aspects of the secondary austenite and chromium nitride precipitation, and its interactions in the HTHAZ of multipass welds, were studied. In addition, toughness and corrosion tests were done to evaluate the influence of the studied phase transformations on the weld behavior. A GleebleÒ system was used to do the heat treatments and HTHAZ simulations. The microstructures were analyzed by means of optic and electron microscopy. Along with the electron microscopy it was done chemical microanalysis of the studied phases. Based on results, it was verified that not all DSSs can be ferritized. This fact has a strong influence on metallurgical behavior and weldability of these alloys. Regarding to the metallurgical fundamental aspects of these steels, it was observed a remarkable interaction between secondary austenite and chromium nitride precipitation. Thus, it was proposed a mechanism of intragranular secondary austenite precipitation from chromium nitrides. It was also verified, how the deleterious effect of intragranular secondary austenite in the corrosion resistance can be avoided by means of appropriate welding procedures.

Em projetos de oleodutos e gasodutos utilizam-se aços de alta resistência e baixa liga (ARBL), como o aço API 5L X80. Na soldagem multipasse destas tubulações, a zona afetada pelo calor (ZAC) do passe de raiz é submetida a um novo ciclo térmico pelos passes de soldagem subsequentes. Isto resulta em alterações nos valores das propriedades físicas. Nos aços ARBL, a ZAC de grãos grosseiros reaquecida intercriticamente (IC-ZACGG) pode se tornar uma zona frágil localizada, isto é, uma zona com maior dureza. Consequentemente, falhas estruturais podem ocorrer, ocasionando paradas não desejadas no transporte de fluidos. O objetivo deste trabalho é desenvolver uma metodologia baseada no modelo de fontes de calor distribuídas de Mhyr e Gröng, para avaliar o fluxo de calor na soldagem considerando as propriedades físicas dependentes da temperatura. Estender a aplicação desta ferramenta em soldagens multipasses para identificar sub-regiões da ZAC de um passe anterior sendo afetada pela ZAC de passes subsequentes. As isotermas simuladas foram validadas através de medições realizadas em macrografias de juntas soldadas. Os ciclos térmicos simulados foram validados através das temperaturas máximas atingidas e pelos tempos de resfriamento de 800 a 500 ºC (?t8-5) dos ciclos térmicos experimentais. Ao aplicar a metodologia proposta, foi possível delimitar com acurácia as regiões reaquecidas da ZAC e analisar os efeitos dos passes subsequentes em cada uma das sub-regiões da ZAC do passe de raiz. A IC-ZACGG na região do passe de raiz foi localizada, mas não se comportou como zona frágil devido à boa soldabilidade do aço API 5L X80 comprovada pelos ensaios de dureza e de tenacidade ao impacto Charpy-V. / In pipelines projects, the high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels are used, such as the API 5L X80 steel. During the multipass welding of these pipes, the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the root pass is subjected to a new thermal cycle by the subsequent welding passes. This results in changes in the values of the physical properties. In the HSLA steels, the intercritical reheated coarse-grained heat-affected zone (IR-CGHAZ) can become a local brittle zone, that is, a region with greater hardness. Consequently, structural failures could happen, causing undesired shutdowns in fluid transportation. The objective of this work is to develop a methodology based on the distributed heat sources model of Mhyr and Gröng, to evaluate the heat flux in the welding considering the temperature-dependent physical properties. Extend the application of this tool in multipass welds to identify HAZ subregions of a previous pass being affected by the HAZ of subsequent passes. The simulated isotherms were validated through measurements made on macrographs of welded joints. The simulated thermal cycles were validated through the maximum temperatures reached and the cooling times from 800 °C to 500 ºC (?t8-5) of the experimental thermal cycles. By applying the proposed methodology, it was possible to accurately delimit reheated HAZ regions and analyze the effects of subsequent passes in each of the root pass HAZ subregions. The IRCGHAZ in the root pass region was localized, but it did not behave as a brittle zone due to the good weldability of the API 5L X80 steel as proven by the hardness and Charpy-V impact tests.