ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The farm Geelwal Karoo is situated some 16km north of the Olifants River mouth on the West Coast of South Africa and hosts fluvial, marine and aeolian deposits of post-Gondwana age. The oldest basal fluvial succession, unconformably overlies Proterozoic and Palaeozoic basement rocks and is in turn capped by aeolianite and littoral packages representing two transgressive cycles. The fluvial channel clay succession is deposited in shallow bedrock-incised channels, has a wedge-shape and is deposited parallel to the present coastline. The flow direction is along the coast and the northwardtapering, angular, poorly sorted basal vein-quartz lag indicates a northward palaeo-flow direction. Less than 1% total heavy minerals (THM) is found in the matrix of these gravel units and the heavy mineral suite is distinguished by zircon, pseudorutile and kyanite. The channel clay unit is dominated by an upper, mediumgrained quartzose sand and kaolin clay facies, which shows advanced post-depositional weathering. The fluvial unit is correlated with the channel clay unit of Hondeklip Bay and a Cretaceous age is proposed for the initial channel incision. The two shallow marine successions have been correlated with the Late Miocene, Early Pleistocene, +30m and +50m packages respectively. These marine sediments were first described by John Pether (1994) in the Hondeklip Bay area and were named according to their transgressive maxima. They are transgressive successions arranged en echelon down the coastal bedrock gradient, from oldest and highest to youngest. The offshore environment of the +50m package consists of fine silty sand, which is moderately sorted. The mineral assemblage is dominated by quartz and the average THM is 18%. The inshore environment is distinguished by a single poorly sorted basal cobble lag which shows an overall fining upward succession. The beachface environment is composed of medium to fine-grained sand, which is moderate to well-sorted. Mineral diversity is greatest in the inshore and beachface environments and the average THM for these two units is greater than 35%. The +30m package has been extensively eroded due to its lower erosion and outcrops were sporadic along the coast. The +30m offshore sediments are recognised by fine sediments with high concentrations of glauconite and organic matter. The inshore environment is distinguished by numerous poorly sorted pebble lags with fining upward successions. Both the inshore and beachface units have higher feldspar concentrations than the corresponding +50m units. The average THM for these two units is less than 3%. The aeolianite unit, which comprises several distinct units, extends over the entire length of the study area and is characterized by calcrete and red bed horizons. Colour variations in the otherwise homogeneous unit are due to heavy mineral enrichment and/or different degrees of in situ weathering and cementation. The unit is composed exclusively of fine- to medium-grained sand and the THM concentration averages 9%. This unit is composed of more than one generation of aeolian sand and forms part of an aeolian transport corridor which transported sand from the beach to the interior. The oldest unit has been equated with the Upper Miocene Prospect Hill Formation, whereas the more recent yellow dune sand is equated with the Pleistocene Springfontyn Formation. At Geelwal Karoo, only the heavy sand placer in the +50m package was deemed to be of any economic significance. The average THM of this placer was calculated to be 40% and some 150 thousand tons of Tibearing material can be expected from this succession. This relatively small volume of heavy minerals and extensive cementation however, make this placer a less attractive prospect than the neighbouring Namakwa Sands operation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die plaas Geelwal Karoo is ongeveer 16km noord van die Olifantsriviermond aan die Weskus van Suid- Afrika geleë en het voorkomste van fluviale, marine en eoliese afsettings van post-Gondwana ouderdom. Die oudste eenheid, ‘n basale fluviale eenheid, oorlê Proterosoiëse en Paleosoiëse plaaslike vloer gesteentes wat op hulle beurt weer bedek word deur eoliese en littorale eenhede verteenwoordigene ven twee transgressiewe siklusse. Die fluviale kanaalklei-opeenvolging, afgeset in vlak ingesnyde rotsbedding-kanale, is wigvormig en is afgeset parallel aan die huidige kuslyn in ‘n alluviale waaier-afsetting. Die vloeirigting was langs die kus en die noorwaards toespitsende, hoekige, swak gesorteerde basale aar-kwarts bodemgruis dui op ‘n noordwaards palaeo-vloeirigting. Minder as 1% totale swaarminerale (TSM) is gevind in die tussenmassa van hierdie gruis-eenhede en die swaarmineraal reeks word onderskei deur sirkoon, pseudo-rutiel en kianiet. Die kanaalklei eenheid word oorheers deur ‘n boonste, medium-korrelrige kwarts-bevattende sand en kaolien kleifasies was dui op gevorderde verwering na afsetting. Die fluviale eenheid word gekorreleer met die kleikanaal en ‘n Kryt-ouderdom word voorgestel vir die aanvanklike insnyding van die kanaal. Die twee vlak marine opeenvolgings word gekorreleer met die Laat Mioseen, vroeg Pleistoseen, naamlik die +30m en +50m eenhede onderskeidelik. Die aflandige omgewing van die +50m eenhied bestaan uit matiggesorteerde, fyn slikkerige sand. Die mineraalversameling word oorheers deur kwarts en die gemiddelde TSM is 18%. Die subgetysone word onderskei deur ‘n enkele swak-gesorteerde gruislaag en is oorwegende opwaarts fynerwordend. Die strandomgewing is goed verteenwordige en bestaan uit matig tot goedgesorteerde medium- tot fynkorrelrige sand. Die grootste mineraal-diversiteit kom voor in die subgety- en strandomgewings en die gemiddelde TSM vir hierdie eenhede is hoër as 35%. As gevolg van algemene erosie kom die +30m eenheid sporadies voor. Die aflandige omgeving is herken deur fyn kleierige of slikkerige sedimente met hoe konsentrasies gloukoniet en organiese materiaal. Die subgetysone omgewing is gekenmerk deur verskeie gruislae wat almal opwaarts fynwordend is. Altwee die subgety- en strandomgewings het hoer feldspar konsentrasies as die +50m eenhede. Die gemiddelde THM vir hierdie enhede is minder as 3%. Die eolitiese eenheid, bestaan uit verskeie duidelik-onderskeibare eenhede, beslaan die totale lengte van die studiegebied en word kenmerk deur uitgebreide kalkreet en rooi-laag horisonne. Kleurverskille in die andersins homogene eenheid kan verklaar word in terme van lae swaarmineraal konsentrasies en/of as gevolg wan verskillende grade van in situ verwering en sementering. Die eenheid bestaan uitsluitlik uit fyntot medium-korrelrige sand en het ‘n gemiddelde TSM konsentrasie van 9%. Die eenheid bestaan uit meer as een generasie eoliese sand en maak deel uit van ‘n eoliese vervoersisteem wat sand vanaf die strand na die binneland vervoer het. Die oudste sande in hierdie eenheid is gekorreleer met die Laat Mioseen Prospect Hill Formasie terwyl die meer onlangse geelduin sand vergelyk word met die Pleistoseen Springbokfontein Formasie. By Geelwal Karoo is slegs die +50m eenhede beskou as economies van belang. Die gemiddelde TSM van hierdie swaarmineraal-ertsligaam is bereken op 40% met ‘n verwagte 150 duisend ton Ti-draende material van die opeenvolging. Die relatiewe klein volume swaarminerale en uitgebreide sementering het tot gevolg dat dit ‘n minder aanloklike proposisie is as die aanliggende Namakwa Sands aanleg.

Thesis (MScConsEcol(Conservation Ecology and Entomology)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / Anglo American Corporation’s Namakwa Sands heavy minerals mining and beneficiation operation has been strip-mining a heavy mineral deposit, rich in the commercially valuable minerals ilmenite, rutile and zircon, since September 1994. The mine is located in the vicinity of Brand-se-Baai on the west coast of South Africa, approximately 385 km north of Cape Town. Strip-mining causes total destruction of natural ecosystems through the removal of vegetation and soil in the area where mining is being undertaken. Namakwa Sands has been rehabilitating mined out areas as the mining front moves forward. Due to the difficulty of rehabilitating mined out areas as a result of harsh environmental factors, Namakwa Sands has initiated various research projects to gain an understanding of the baseline conditions and ecosystem function in order to increase plant cover and biodiversity on post-mined areas. This on-going research and the development of rehabilitation and mining techniques have resulted in the implementation of four rehabilitation techniques varying in investment of topsoil replacement, seeding and plant translocation. This study assesses the success and effectiveness of these techniques in terms of various vegetation and soil parameters. In addition, those parameters that are considered useful for monitoring are identified. This study indicated that topsoil replacement and plant translocation facilitate the return of similarity, species richness, species diversity and vegetation cover to post-mined areas. The rehabilitation site that had the greatest amount of biological input (topsoil replacement and plant translocation) appeared to be the most successful technique in facilitating vegetation recovery similar to reference sites. In comparison, the site that had the least amount of biological input performed the worst and requires adaptive management, e.g. reseeding and / or plant translocation. Namakwa Sands should continue to replace topsoil in all future rehabilitation efforts and, when possible (e.g. after sufficient winter rain), continue to translocate species in multi-species clumps. In terms of species selected for translocation, Othonna cylindrica, Ruschia versicolor and Lampranthus suavissimus should be considered for future large-scale translocation projects. Zygophyllum morgsana appears to be more difficult to re-establish under the current climatic conditions (below average rainfall). The long-term viability of rehabilitated Z. morgsana populations needs to be determined before considering this species for any future large-scale translocation purposes. No translocated Asparagus spp. individuals survived and should therefore not be considered for any further translocation purposes. The grass Ehrharta calycina, which is dominant in the site seeded, should continue to be considered for future seeding. Species and functional diversity appear to be the most limiting factors within all the rehabilitation sites and Namakwa Sands will not be able to meet their long-term objective of small-stock farming if diversity and the number of palatable species do not increase significantly. Adaptive management should seriously be considered in order to speed up this process. Alternatively, an appropriate grazing strategy, which is related to the Tetragonia fruticosa dominated vegetation within rehabilitation sites, would need to be determined and adopted.More time is needed to ameliorate the rehabilitated soil profiles to the same level as in reference sites, especially with regard to carbon, pH and sodium levels. In order to increase organic matter within rehabilitation areas, Namakwa Sands should consider creating clumps with cleared vegetation from the mining front. Since the long-term rehabilitation goal has not been achieved, Namakwa Sands will need to continue to monitor plant and soil changes until it has been achieved. The objectives of the current rehabilitation programme are limited and Namakwa Sands should develop additional objectives relating to the structure and function of the natural vegetation. This will give a better indication of whether rehabilitation sites are progressing towards the desired end point and if adaptive management is required. In addition, the current monitoring programme (vegetation survey) implemented at Namakwa Sands could be improved by increasing the vegetation parameters to be monitored. It is recommended that the following vegetation parameters be monitored as part of the long-term monitoring programme: species composition and similarity, species richness, species diversity, vegetation cover, species dominance, vertical structure and functional diversity of the vegetation (clumps and inter-clumps). It is also recommended that carbon, pH and sodium of soil profiles be monitored as part of the long-term monitoring programme. These parameters should not be seen as exhaustive as this study only considered various vegetation parameters and soil chemistry between rehabilitation and reference sites. The results of other studies on the fauna, mycorrhiza, insects, etc. should also be taken into consideration and the monitoring parameters expanded accordingly.

Thesis (MScAgric (Soil Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / The purpose of this study was to investigate and identify the occurrence of specific soil properties that may be important for vegetation functioning and the possible effect of the loss of or changes in these properties on rehabilitation success on the sandy coastal plains of the West Coast, South Africa. The study area covered approximately 9 400 ha on the Namaqualand coast in the vicinity of Brand-se-Baai (31º18'S 17º54'E), approximately 350 km north of Cape Town and 70 km north-west of the nearest town, Lutzville. A soil survey was done to reveal the presence of important pedological features. The 20 soil profiles surveyed are situated within six vegetation communities. Pedological features such as surface water repellency, permeable apedal subsurface horizons, subsurface impediments such as cemented (calcrete or dorbank) hardpans and significantly more clayey (cutanic, luvic) horizons were identified. A comparative study between rehabilitated and natural soils indicates that mining operations result in the formation of saline sand tailings, stripped of a large portion of the clay and organic matter fraction. The natural leaching of solutes, over a period of 25 months, is sufficient to lower salinity of the tailings to levels comparable to natural soils. This leaching can also results in lowering of soil fertility. Removal of the dorbank and the dense neocutanic horizon in the western side of the mine, loss of topographical features such as small dune systems and heuweltjies, destruction of natural soil profile morphology and the lowering of organic carbon and clay plus silt fraction can have detrimental effects on attempts at rehabilitation of this area to a natural condition similar to that which preceded the mining operation. Infiltration fingering and deep percolation results in the development of an aquifer below the reach of shallow-rooted desert shrubs. A method of water acquisition by vegetation through water distillation is investigated as a possible solution to the apparent discontinuum between the shallow root systems and deeper-lying aquifer. Volumetric water content measurements indicated that precipitation of 29.5 mm, over a period of 10 days, did not result in any variation at 235 mm, 360 mm and 900 mm depths. An average volumetric water content increase of 0.4 mm per night was measured in the first 23.5 cm of soil surface. This amount is a significant source of water that can explain the shallow root distribution. Water vapour movement due to temperature gradients can explain the diurnal volumetric water content fluctuations observed. Further studies are necessary to determine to what extent the depth of water infiltration influences the capacity of subsurface dew to provide plants with a nocturnal water source. Findings of this study can be summarised into two concepts namely: • Heuweltjies, small dune systems, and variation in depth of cemented hardpans are the main features that contribute to pedosphere variation and possibly to biodiversity. • Pedogenic features such as topsoil hydrophobicity, and cemented dorbank and dense more clayey (cutanic, luvic) subsurface horizons are important components of a soil water distillation process that could be a driving force behind vegetation functioning in this region. Mine activities result in the loss of certain pedogenic features and soil properties that that could be key ingredients to ecosystem functioning. The inability to recognise their significance and ignorance thereof when planning rehabilitation methods might prevent sustainable restoration of the environment.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Five areas proximal to the world class Namakwa Sands heavy mineral deposit have been studied and include the farms Houtkraal Remainder Portion 2, Houtkraal Remainder, Geelwal Karoo, Graauwduinen and Rietfontein. These are locally referred to as the satellite deposits and are sub-economic occurrences. The primary objective of the study was to quantify the mineralogy and mineral chemistry, determine the provenance of the heavy mineral suite and draw a comparison between the satellite deposits and the Namakwa Sands deposit from an exploratory point of view. Methodology used to achieve the above objectives included optical microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), Quantitative Evaluation of Minerals by Scanning Electron Microscopy (QEMSCAN), X- Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Zr-geothermometry of rutile. The five satellite areas contain the same heavy mineral suite but mineral proportions differ. The total heavy mineral population (THM) are diverse and consist of ilmenite and its alteration products (hydrated ilmenite, pseudorutile and leucoxene), magnetite, hematite, spinel, rutile, tourmaline, pyroxene, amphibole, garnet, aluminosilicates, staurolite, corundum, epidote, zircon, monazite and sphene. Ilmenite and garnet are the two most dominant heavy minerals present. The valuable heavy minerals (VHM) suite consists of ilmenite, zircon, rutile and leucoxene. The mineralogy of the satellite areas and chemistry of the ore minerals (rutile, zircon, ilmenite and leucoxene) are similar to the Namakwa Sands deposit. The whole spectrum of ilmenite alteration products (hydrated ilmenite, pseudorutile, and leucoxene) is present and allowed the quantitative use of the alteration index. The indices is low (22-24%) and indicates that the surficial deposits have formed under arid to semi-arid climatological conditions which preserved the pristine character of most of the minerals. This allowed reliable provenance studies using the characteristics of most of the heavy mineral suite, which showed that the minerals were derived from a diversity of source rocks. These included mainly medium to high-grade metamorphites and felsic intrusives of the underlying Mesoproterozoic Namaqualand Metamorphic Complex and a minor contribution from the Neoproterozoic Gariep Supergroup. This relationship indicates a limited transport distance from source to depositional basin. Mineral ratios in particular the THM-VHM relationship showed that the deposits located close to the shoreline such as Geelwal Karoo, Graauwduinen and Rietfontein have a relatively low proportion of valuable heavy minerals whereas those more inland such as Houtkraal Remainder Portion 2 and Houtkraal Remainder are close to unity. Heavy mineral concentration as such is low in the satellite areas and the mechanism to increase the concentration is clearly not only a function of distance from the present shoreline but is also topographically controlled. Steep sided linear depressions channelled the unconsolidated sediments and heavy minerals were upgraded into economic concentrations by aeolian processes. The quality of the valuable heavy minerals in the satellite areas however is similar to those of the adjacent Namakwa Sands deposit. This study has demonstrated that Houtkraal Remainder is the northeasterly continuation of the red aeolian sand (RAS) associated East Mine orebody and offers the best exploration potential. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vyf areas proksimaal aan die Namakwa Sands swaar mineral afsetting is bestudeer en sluit in Houtkraal Remainder, Houtkraal Remainder Portion 2, Geelwal Karoo, Graauwduinen en Rietfontein. Hierdie areas word plaaslik na verwys as satelliet afsettings en is subekonomies. Die hoofdoel van hierdie studie was om die mineralogie en mineral chemie te kwantifiseer, die oorsprong van die swaar mineraal suite te bepaal asook n vergelyking te tref tussen die satelliet areas en die Namakwa Sands afsetting vanuit n verkennende eksplorasie oogpunt. Optiese mikroskopie, SEM, LA-ICP-MS, QEMSCAN, XRF en die Zr-geotermometer van rutiel is gebruik om bostaande doele te bereik. Die vyf satellite areas bestaan uit dieselfde swaar minerale maar mineral proporsies verskil. Die totale swaar mineraal populasie is divers en bestaan uit ilmeniet en ilmeniet se veranderingsprodukte (gehidreerde ilmeniet, pseudorutiel en leukokseen), magnetiet, hematiet, spinel, rutiel, toermalyn, pirokseen, amfibool, granaat, aluminiumsilikate, stauroliet, korund, epidoot, sirkoon, monasiet and sfeen. Ilmenite en granaat is die twee mees dominante swaar minerale teenwoordig. Die waardevolle swaar mineraal populasie bestaan uit ilmeniet, rutiel, sirkoon en leukokseen. Die mineralogie van die satelliet areas en die chemie van die erts minerale (rutiel, sirkoon, ilmeniet en leukokseen) is dieselfde as die van die Namakwa Sands afsetting. Die hele spektrum ilmeniet veranderingsprodukte is teenwoordig en het die kwantitatiewe gebruik van die alterasie indeks toegelaat. Die alterasie indekse is laag (22-24%) en dui aan dat die oppervak afsettings gevorm het tydens droë tot semi droë toestande wat die eertydse karakter van meeste minerale bewaar het. Deurdat die karakter van meeste minerale behoue gebly het, kon provenans studies toegepas word op die swaar mineraal suite. Provenans studies het aangedui dat die swaar minerale afkomstig is van n verskeidenheid van bron gesteentes. Dit sluit in medium tot hoë graad metamorfe gesteentes en felsiese intrusies van die Mesoproterosoïese Namakwaland Metamorfiese Kompleks met n geringe bydrae van die Neo Proterosoïese Gariep Supergroep. Hierdie verhouding dui n beperkte vervoer afstand aan vanaf die bron tot by die afsettings omgewing. Mineraal vehoudings spesifiek die totale swaar mineraal-waardevolle swaar mineraal verhoudings dui aan dat afsettings na aan die kus soos Geelwal Karoo, Graauwduinen en Rietfontien n lae inhoud van waardevolle swaar minerale het teenoor afsettings soos Houtkraal Remainder Portion 2 en Houtkraal Remainder wat meer land in is met verhoudings na aan eenheid. Swaar mineral konsentrasie is laag in die satellite areas en die meganisme verantwoordelik vir die toename in konsentrasie is nie net n funksie van die afstand van die bestaande kuslyn nie maar word ook deur topografie beheer. Steil sydige lineêre depressies kanaliseer die ongekonsolideerde sediment en swaar minerale en word opgradeer tot ekonomiese konsentrasies deur wind prossese. Die kwaliteit van die waardevolle swaar minerale in die satelliet areas is egter dieselfde as die van die aangrensende Namakwa Sands afsetting. Hierdie studie het gewys dat Houtkraal Remainder is die noordelike voortsetting van die Rooi Aeoliese Sand geassosieerde Oos Myn ertsliggam en bied die beste eksplorasie potensiaal.

M.Sc. / Scientific relevance: Qualitative and quantitative data is presented that give a new perspective on the traditional medicinal plants of the Khoisan (Khoe-San), one of the most ancient of human cultures. The data is not only of considerable historical and cultural value, but allows for fascinating comparative studies relating to new species records, novel use records and the spatial distribution of traditional medicinal plant use knowledge within the Cape Floristic Region. Aim of the study: A detailed documentation and quantitative analysis of medicinal plants of the Kamiesberg area (an important Khoisan and Nama cultural centre) and their medicinal traditional uses, which have hitherto remained unrecorded. Materials and methods: During four study visits to the Kamiesberg, semi-structured and structured interviews were conducted with 23 local inhabitants of the Kamiesberg, mostly of Khoisan decent. In addition to standard methodology, a newly developed Matrix Method was used to quantity medicinal plant knowledge. Results: The Kamiesberg is an important center of extant Nama ethnomedicinal information but the knowledge is rapidly disappearing. Of a total of 101 medicinal plants and 1375 anecdotes, 21 species were recorded for the first time as having traditional medicinal uses and at least 284 medicinal use records were new. The relative importance, popularity and uses of the plants were quantified. The 97 newly documented vernacular names include 23 Nama (Khoekhoegowab) names and an additional 55 new variations of known names. The calculated Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index (EKI) and other indices accurately quantify the level of knowledge and will allow for future comparisons, not only within the Kamiesberg area but also with other southern African communities of Khoisan decent. Conclusion: The results showed that the Kamiesberg is an important focal point of Khoisan (Nama) traditional knowledge but that the medicinal plants have not yet been systematically recorded in the scientific literature. There are numerous new use records and new species records that are in need of scientific study. Comparative data is now available for broader comparisons of the pattern of Khoisan plants use in southern Africa and the study represents another step towards a complete synthesis of Cape Herbal Medicine.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Tortoises appear to be successful in arid ecosystems, where they depend on primary production for their predominantly herbivorous diets. The low primary production of arid regions is exacerbated by priodic droughts, so that iteroparous species such as chelonians require mechanisms to overcome resource shortages. The smallest of all tortoises, Homopus signatus signatus, occurs in a dry winter rainfall area in northwestern South Africa that is threatened with aridification due to regional climate change. The overall aim of this study is to understand the ecology of H. s. signatus, particularly in reference to the importance of rainfall.

Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / This study focuses on women's perceptions of land rights in the communal areas of Namaqualand in the Northern Cape province of South Africa. Here women farm land which they can access only through their relationships with male kin. Women's use rights are dependent on their relationships with fathers, husbands and sons; and it is virtually impossible for women to obtain land in their own names. Women's own views of rights, of access, of control and authority over land display a significant gender bias in favour of men. This study explores women's understandings and perceptions of land rights and agriculture and other forms of land use. The objectives of the study are to explore the links between patriarchal social systems and women's conservative attitudes towards holding land; and to show how current policy processes and legislation – aimed at strengthening the rights of existing landholders in communal areas – allow local customs to continue to entrench gender discriminatory practices. A small study was conducted through in-depth interviews with sixty-five women and two focus group discussions with women in Namaqualand. The scope of the study was limited to exploring the nature of women's land rights in five of the communal areas of Namaqualand; formal and informal "rules" around women's land rights; women's practices of asserting or realising land rights; challenges and opportunities that women experience in claiming their land rights; the views and understandings of women in relation to land use and its contribution to livelihoods; and how women understand the impact of current land reform policies on their access to land. For the purpose of this thesis, literature on land tenure, gender and land rights as well as on the history of the former Coloured rural reserves of Namaqualand was considered. The key findings of the study indicate that women are disadvantaged by historical norms, values and attitudes, which afford them only secondary rights to land. Yet, informal land practices – however limited – show that in some cases women are creating opportunities to gain access to land independently. For this to become the norm rather than an exception, these practices need recognition and support within the on-going land reform transformation process in Namaqualand.

Magister Artium - MA / This thesis relates what is referred to in the text as a 'chronicle' of the history of the Cloete family of Springbokfontein and surrounding areas in Namaqualand, with particular attention to the issue of a land transaction in the early 1850s between seven Cloete brothers and the English copper mining company Phillips & King. The sale of the farm Melkboschkuil has since been a source of long-standing dispute on the part of the Cloete family. It traces the circumstances of the Cloetes' settlement in Namaqualand, the archival and oral record regarding the highly contentious ‘sale’ of the land between these parties, and the subsequent resonances of this land dispute over decades and indeed right up to the 1990s when the Cloete descendants lodged a land claim. The author attempts to use the very specific story of a land deal to throw light on the wider story of the relations between a disadvantaged Baster and later 'Coloured' family, and the white-dominated local and regional government in Namaqualand -- particularly in Springbok. At the same time, attention is drawn to the political and economic forces shaping the people around Springbokfontein during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The small story of the Cloetes is used to illuminate the wider history of the inequitable relations between white capitalists and Baster/Coloured landowners dispossessed of their historic rights to land. The thesis is based on a detailed examination of the struggle of the Cloete family in Namaqualand to secure possession of the land that they once owned but which became the site of a copper mine and later on the town of Springbok. The narrative told from the perspective of certain members of the Cloete family and their descendants, follows a convoluted trail of legal papers, land deeds and oral pronouncements. But at the heart of the story is the question as to how the Nama and Baster people of Namaqualand came to be divested of their rights to the land and a fair share of the mineral wealth of the district following the development of copper mining.

Namaqualand is a semi-desert area situated in the winter rainfall region of South Africa hosting the world’s richest succulent flora, and is one of only two arid areas to classify as a global hotspot of biodiversity. The Goegap Nature Reserve, east of Springbok, lies in the Upland Succulent Karoo. After all the livestock were removed and the reserve fenced in 1969, a long-term monitoring project was initiated to record possible vegetation changes under the reduced grazing pressure. The first monitoring was done in 1974 when two line transects, of 1 km each, were surveyed. These surveys have been repeated annually covering a period of more than 30 years. When the reserve was enlarged in 1990, five additional line transects were set out in highly degraded areas. The main aim of this study was therefore to determine whether any changes in the vegetation in terms of species composition, species richness and life form richness in the monitored line transects could be detected. Rainfall as possible force driving these changes was also examined. It was found that changes did indeed take place in the vegetation. The species composition revealed notable changes over the entire monitored period, specifically in the two longest established line transects, whereas in the case of the species richness changes were also detected, but to a lesser extent and not notable in terms of an overall increase or decrease in the number of species. These changes are referred to as fluctuations. Rainfall can be regarded as a definite environmental driving force, with the time, intensity and duration of importance, specifically to the annual species composition. Overall, the veld condition improved and continuous monitoring of the line transects on a regular basis should take place to improve our understanding of the complex dynamics of this ecosystem. Because the changes in species composition are reflected in changes in grazing capacity the results are of direct importance to the management of the wildlife on the reserve. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Plant Science / unrestricted

D.Phil. / The tectonic history of the Kheis Terrane and its relationship with the Namaqua-Natal Metamorphic Province (NNMP) along the western margin of the Kaapvaal Craton were the focus of this study. Major issues addressed in this study are the origin and timing of formation of the Kheis Terrane and the recognition and definition of terrane boundaries in the area. Results of detailed measured sections across the Kheis Terrane, heavy mineral provenance studies, 40Ar/39Ar analyses of metamorphic muscovite, U-Pb SHRIMP dating of detrital zircon grains from 12 samples from the Kheis- and Kakamas Terranes and one igneous body from the Kakamas Terrane are presented. A new stratigraphic unit, the Keis Supergroup, comprising the Olifantshoek-, Groblershoop- and Wilgenhoutsdrif Groups, is defined. The base of the Keis Supergroup is taken at the basal conglomerate of the Neylan Formation. The Mapedi- and Lucknow Formations, previously considered part of the Olifantshoek Group, are now incorporated into the underlying Transvaal Supergroup. The Dabep Fault was found not to represent a terrane boundary. Rather, the Blackridge Thrust represents the boundary between the rocks of the Kheis Terrane and the Kaapvaal Craton. Provenance studies indicate that the rocks of the Keis Supergroup were deposited along a passive continental margin on the western side of the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe Craton with the detritus derived from a cratonic interior. Detrital zircon grains from the rocks of the Keis Supergroup of the Kheis Terrane all gave similar detrital zircon age populations of ~1800Ma to ~2300Ma and ~2500Ma to ~2700Ma. The Kaapvaal Craton most probably never acted as a major source area for the rocks of the Keis Supergroup because of the lack of Paleo- to Mesoarchean zircon populations in the Keis Supergroup. Most of the detrital zircon grains incorporated into the Keis Supergroup were derived from the Magondi- and Limpopo Belts and the Zimbabwe Craton to the northeast of the Keis basin. The rock of the Kakamas Terrane was derived from a totally different source area with ages of ~1100Ma to ~1500Ma and ~1700Ma to ~1900Ma which were derived from the Richtersveld- and Bushmanland Terranes as well as the ~1166Ma old granitic gneisses ofthe Kakamas Terrane. Therefore the rocks of the Kheis- and Kakamas Terranes were separated from each other during their deposition. Detrital zircon populations from the Sprigg Formation indicate that it this unit was deposited after the amalgamation of the Kheis- and Kakamas Terranes and therefore does not belong to the Areachap Group. Results provide clear evidence for a tectonic model characterised by the presence of at least two Wilson cycles that affeected the western margin of the Kaapvaal Craton in the interval between the extrusion of the Hartley lavas at 1.93Ga and the collision with the Richtersveld tectonic domain at ~1.13Ga. According to the revised plate tectonic model for the western margin of the Kaapvaal- Zimbabwe Craton, the Neylan Formation represents the initiation of the first Wilson Cycle, with rifting at ~1927Ma ago, on the western margin of the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe Craton. The metasedimentary rocks of the Olifantshoek Group were deposited in a braided river environment which gradually changed into a shallow marine environment towards the top of the Olifantshoek Group in the Top Dog Formation. The metasedimentary rocks of the Groblershoop Group were deposited in a shallow, passive or trailing continental margin on the western side of the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe Craton. The rocks of the Wilgenhoutsdrif Group overlie the Groblershoop Group unconformably. This unconformity is related to crustal warping as a volcanic arc, represented by the metavolcanics of the Areachap Group, approached the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe Craton from the west. The rocks of the Keis Supergroup were deformed into the Kheis Terrane during the collision of the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe Craton, Areachap Arc and the Kgalagadi Terrane to form the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe-Kgalagadi Craton. This event took place sometime between 1290Ma, the age of deformed granites in the Kheis Terrane and 1172Ma, the initiation of rifting represented by the Koras Group. This is supported by 40Ar/39Ar analyses of metamorphic muscovite from the Kheis Terrane that did not provide any evidence for a ~1.8Ga old Kheis orogeny (an age commonly suggested in the past for this orogeny). This collisional event resulted in the deformation of the rocks of the Keis Supergroup into the Kheis Terrane sometime between 1290Ma and 1172Ma.The second Wilson cycle was initiated during rifting along the Koras-Sinclair-Ghanzi rift on the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe-Kgalagadi Craton at ~1172Ma. It was followed soon after by the initiation of subduction underneath the Richtersveld cratonic fragment at ~1166Ma after which the rocks of the Korannaland Group were deposited. The closure of the oceanic basin between the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe-Kgalagadi Craton and the Richtersveld cratonic fragment occurred about 50Ma later (~1113Ma, the age of neomorphic muscovite in the metasedimentary rocks of the Kakamas Terrane) and resulted in the large open folds characterising the Kheis terrane and NNMP. Detrital zircon populations in the Sprigg Formation show that this formation does not belong to the Areachap Group and that it was deposited after the closure of the oceanic basin between the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe-Kgalagadi Craton and the Richtersveld cratonic fragment at ~1113Ma. The Areachap Group can be extended towards the north and into Botswana along the Kalahari line where it forms the boundary between the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe Craton to its east and the Kgalagadi Terrane to its west. The Areachap Terrane is thus related to the collision of the Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe Craton and Kgalagadi Terrane and was deformed a second time during the oblique collision of the Richtersveld cratonic fragment with the combined Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe-Kgalagadi Craton. The extension of the Areachap Group to the north along the Kalahari line opens up new exploration prospects for Coppertontype massive sulphide deposits underneath the Kalahari sand.