This thesis responds to the need to quantify social learning and its outcomes as it relates to natural resource management. Social learning enables individuals engaging in collective action to understand each other’s perspectives, encourages integration of diverse knowledge bases, and the creation of new knowledge (Keen, Brown, & Dyball, 2005). However, the concept currently lacks a clear operational definition in natural resource management. The lack of an operational definition for social learning has stymied attempts to validate its espoused ability to improve civic discourse and, ultimately, resource governance (Pahl-Wostl & Hare, 2004). This report is composed of three papers that collectively offer a way forward for this area of research. The first paper supplies an operational definition of social learning based on team cognition research in organizational psychology. One possible research framework for the assessment of social learning is provided. The second paper presents a case study using this framework. The case study takes place within the context of private forestlands management; a growing arena for collective action institutions. A pre-test and post-test quasi-experimental design is used to test for social learning resulting from a participatory research intervention. The third paper documents the results of the participatory research intervention, independent of the social learning framework.

Part 1- Abstract This research study presents detailed petrographic- and geochemical- analysis of 63 rock samples from the Atchiza Suite. The Suite is a layered mafic-ultramafic pluton located in the Tete Suite, of NW Mozambique. At present, the Atchiza comprises a group of three main types of rock that are classified based on their mineralogy, textures, geochemical composition. These are ultramafic cumulates (dunite and pyroxenites), mafic cumulates (medium-grained cumulate gabbro) and coarse-grained gabbro (non-cumulate gabbro). Compared to the rest of other rocks, coarse-grained gabbro shows high enrichment of Ti (0.64-3.46 wt% TiO2), Zr (5.9-296.1 5ppm), Sr (253.7-1268.4ppm) and V (224-952.3ppm), but relatively low depleted in compatible elements (Ni = 48.7-235.7ppm , Cr = below detection limit to 410.5ppm). Cumulate ultramafics are highly enriched in compatible elements (Ni up to 4636.2ppm, Cr up to 4721ppm). A high Mg# in ultramafic cumulates (0.59-0.86) suggests an Mg-rich primitive parental magma, whereas a low Mg# in coarse-grained gabbro (0.23-0.37) suggests a relatively high-differentiated magma. Cumulate gabbro shows Mg# ranging from 0.40-0.72, suggesting a moderately evolved magma source (derivative magma subsequent to fractionation of ultramafic cumulates). The Ni/Zr, Cr/Zr, Sr/Zr and Ti/Zr ratios are generally the lowest in coarse-grained gabbro when compared to cumulate rocks. The same applied; this suggests that coarse-grained gabbros were probably formed from a relatively high-differentiated magmatic liquid. In addition, the presence of an uninterrupted cryptic differentiation trend with these ratios implies that the Atchiza igneous lithologies were derived from one and the same parental melt. Apparently, Atchiza shows great variability of Fe2O3, SiO2 and SO3 during magmatic differentiation. There is significant decrease in Fe2O3, an increased SiO2 and SO3 contents in residual magma during progressive magma fractionation. It is true that all these geochemical changes will lower down the solubility of S in the system, thus providing a favourable condition for silicate-sulfide immiscibility. Theoretically, therefore, the Atchiza may have a potential to host Ni-Cu-(PGE) sulfide deposits. Part 2- Abstract Unlike water and forests, minerals are finite resources; they cannot be replaced back to their natural forms once they are depleted. For that reason, sustainable management of mineral resources is very important so that stakeholders in the extractive sector are guaranteed the same opportunities in sharing benefits. As part of this study, and with respect to Atchiza Suite, this section is discussing sustainable management of mineral deposits in Mozambique. Investment in Mozambican extractive industry should primarily be done with the main objective of poverty reduction for Mozambican citizens. Thus, the Mozambican Government needs to realize that proper management of mineral deposits will provide sufficient income for the country, enough to fund other development projects. Rather than being mismanaged, this massive collection of mineral revenues needs to be appropriately re-invested back to diversify other economic sectors. If this mineral revenue is managed wisely, the national annual budgets will be sufficiently supported. Most importantly, the country’s reliance on international loans and aids will be reduced significantly. Decision-making for development of the country’s mineral projects should not be central-governed; rather it should be transparent to the public and open for opinions and suggestions. As the main stakeholder in Mozambican extractive sector, local communities and civil societal groups should also be given opportunities to participate in decision-making, important for the development of mining projects. Mineral agreements for which the Mozambican State has been signing with multinational companies for development of the country’s mineral projects need to be published and be available publicly. In addition, negotiation of mining agreements must be transparent and involve all stakeholders. Investment and development of the country’s mineral projects must be performed through partnerships and Joint ventures between multinational mining companies, national-based companies and the Mozambican State. Development of mineral deposits must incorporate environmental sustainability. Despite its high mineral potential (e.g. Ni-Cu-PGE-Ti-V), Atchiza also is surrounded by a wide range of other natural resources. The Cahora Bassa Dam, which is located just adjacent to Atchiza Project, is the main source of clean energy not only for Mozambique domestic market, but also for the majority of Sub-Saharan countries. All of these natural resources require good practice of Environmental sustainability in mining activities.

Landscape and vegetation data were extracted from digital maps by use of GIS. These data together with predator and management related data collected from landowners and hunter's associations in Norway, were used as explanatory parameters in an analysis of density estimates of black grouse and capercaillie in a number of study sites in Norway. By habitat modeling the dominating wood type and the landscape heterogeneity of an area were identified as important factors affecting the black grouse populations. For the capercaillie the forest cover, proportion of blueberry forest and abundance of pine marten were appointed to be important factors.

AbstractHuman-carnivore conflict is currently one of the main constraints to biodiversity conservation efforts outside many protected areas worldwide. A survey of livestock depredation caused by wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) and other wild carnivore species in the Maasai and Sonjo areas outside Serengeti National Park, Tanzania over two periods between 2007/09 and 2010 using different methodologies indicated a high level of conflict. The conflict related to African wild dogs proved the most significant conflict during both periods compared with that related to other carnivores. Wild dogs were found to cause more attacks in the Maasai area (n = 229, n = 18) than in the Sonjo area (n = 111, n = 9) over both observation periods. However, the difference in attack rates was attributed to a difference in the size of the livestock populations, as there were approximately 318,209 animals belonging to the Maasai tribe, while the Sonjo tribe had only 78,191 livestock. Therefore, wild dogs were found to exert a statistically significantly higher depredation rate (1.42 animals per 1000 per year) related to the Sonjo tribe compared with the Maasai tribe (0.72 animals per 1000 per year), as estimated only during the first period.African wild dogs were found to be the most common predator in both areas for both periods. However, in the second period, leopards (Panthera pardus) and spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) were also found to be quite common predators in both areas. Shoats (sheep & goats) were depredated more frequently than cattle/donkeys by wild dogs and other carnivores in the area. Livestock depredation was found to occur most frequently during evening. While shoats were found to be most frequently attacked during the wet season, cattle/donkeys were most frequently attacked during the dry season. The results of this study recommend that traditional livestock husbandry techniques should be improved, as should the use of non-lethal control measures. Prevention and control measures for diseases that can affect both livestock and wildlife should be instituted in the area to enhance the survival rate of young animals. If possible, herders should bring their livestock back to boma before 16:00 hrs in the evening. Shoats should be more attentively looked after during the wet season. Furthermore, eco-tourism activities should be encouraged in the area. To achieve these aims, the reinforcement of wild dogs’ conservation awareness programmes in the area is a possible way forward.

Serengeti ecosystem supports great number of large mammals ranging from grazers, browsers and carnivores. Some of these animals migrate between seasonal water sources and grasslands. The human population in the western boundary of the park is currently high and increases at the rate of 4% per annum. Majority of local communities are subsistence farmers who derive their needs such as bush meat from the park. The purpose of the study was to test if bush meat utilization contributes to nutritional improvement of local communities around Serengeti National Park. Three villages were selected at random along a gradient of distance from Serengeti National Park and Lake Victoria and a control village from Dodoma Region in Tanzania. One hundred households were selected at random from each village and interviewed. Weight and height of children aged 3 to 12 years from the selected households were measured. Anthropometric data were analyzed by WHO AntrhoPlus software while questionnaires were analyzed by SPSS for windows version 18. The results revealed significant differences in the number of undernourished children from the villages which were in western Serengeti compared to the control village. Consumption of bushmeat was significantly higher in the villages which were close to the park compared to the village which was further away from the park. Fish consumption was higher than bushmeat in the village which was close to both park and Lake Victoria and negatively correlated with bushmeat meals, while consumption of livestock meat was higher in the control village. No significant relationship between nutritional status of children and number of bushmeat meals observed, but there was a negative relationship between nutritional status and distance from the park/lake and the price of bushmeat. The study also revealed significant relationship between level of education of the parent and the body mass index of the children.

An experiment was performed in four artificial stream channels during summer and autumn to investigate the effects of biotic and abiotic factors on habitat choice of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). To investigate factors determining habitat choice, the stream channels had sloped river beds creating two distinct habitats (shallow and deep). The main factor, large Atlantic salmon present (large present), was the most important factor affecting juvenile habitat choice during summer time experiments. During autumn experiments, the two main factors large Atlantic salmon present and time of day (exclusive for autumn experiments), were important factors affecting habitat choice. The highly significant effect on juvenile habitat choice of having a large Atlantic salmon present identifies inter-cohort competition and/or risk of predation as important factors affecting habitat choice in juveniles. This, in turn, could have direct or indirect effects on juvenile survival and growth. The differences between proportions of fish in the deep between night and day highlights a diel change in habitat use by juveniles.

This project aims to create new research tools within the human dimensions (HD) of the natural resources field to improve environmental policy decision making. It addresses problems that arise from the recent trend towards decentralized natural resource management (NRM) and planning (e.g., community-based planning, watershed-based and collaborative management, others). By examining one decentralized riparian management planning effort along the Yellowstone River (Montana), this study finds that decentralization forces new needs such as localized information requirements and a better understanding of the rationales behind local interests. To meet these new scale demands and to ensure that policy best fits the social and biophysical settings, this project argues that local cultural knowledge can serve as an organizing framework for delivering the kinds of understanding needed for decentralized planning. This was tested by interviewing 313 riverfront landowners, recreationalists, and civic managers to understand how residents conceptualize the river’s natural processes, its management, and their desires for the future of the river. Analysis of the transcribed in-depth interview texts—the Yellowstone River Cultural Inventory (YRCI)—found that: (1) altering decision venues places more significance upon interpersonal working relationships between managers and citizens; (2) while local expertise can provide higher quality information to managers, local decision making cultures still retain power dynamics that can inhibit or advance conservation policies; (3) how natural resource places are symbolically communicated has a material impact upon resource uses; (4) how residents conceptualize the ownership of land is complicated along a dynamic river; and (5) this dynamism impacts planning efforts. In sum, this project argues that for social research to provide the data and analysis appropriate, a modification in scale and a commensurate shift in the lenses used for social inquiry is necessary. An in-depth understanding of local cultures—like the YRCI—enables agencies to best manage in decentralized scales of planning by calling attention to site-specific nuances such as power dynamics and place representation which are often missed in traditional large-scale HD methods and lenses. This research also functions as a preemptive way to engage the public in environmental planning helping decision makers’ best fit policy to particular socio-cultural and ecological settings.

This thesis analyses the current development of indigenous rights in Taiwan based on a study of the Atayal community of Smangus in Hsinchu County. The research focuses on a case study of the Smangus Beech Tree Incident, a legal case related to the use of wood　from a wind-fallen tree. The case began in 2005, the same year that Taiwan passed the Indigenous Peoples' Basic Law. The events are also placed in the broader context of the　modern indigenous rights movement which had its beginnings in Taiwan in the early 1980s and the more than century long history of conflict between the Atayal and the state. Smangus has developed a unique community with a cooperative system of management that draws from both the Atayal tradition and ideas from the modern world. Ecotourism is the main economic foundation for the community. The development of Smangus and their assertion of their rights in the Smangus case provides an example of how indigenous peoples can regain greater control over the lands which they consider to be their traditional territory. The thesis then looks at co-management of Aboriginal-owned national parks in Australia. The final chapter considers how the co-management model could be adapted in Taiwan and gives recommendations for policy makers.

This study examined what separates a crossing site from an available crossing site and investigate when and where roads are more likely to be crossed by moose (Alces alces). Five seasonal models for two sexes were selected using an information-theoretic approach based on Akaike’s Information Criteria. Crossings were expected to be more likely during times of increased moose activity, and in areas of preferred moose habitat.There were clear temporal effects of moose road-crossing probability, both within and between seasons: crossings were most likely to occur during the twilight hours. The influence of habitat and climate was much lower than expected, which lead to difficulties in creating spatially predictive statistical models. Nevertheless, high quality forage attracted crossings, while ruggedness, human disturbance and snow depth dissuaded them. It is therefore possible to predict spatially varying crossing probabilities across varying seasons, but it is difficult to produce management recommendations on this basis. Moose-vehicle collision-mitigating actions should therefore be focused on the temporal scale and management of the moose population density.

The lack of access to forest resources for the rural community residing in the buffer zones of national parks has created conflict between the national parks, the people residing in these areas and wildlife. People residing in the buffer zone of national parks incur losses due to the wildlife, which can impact both crops and human lives. This study focused on the attitudes, acceptance and knowledge level of people living near the park to explore the conflict between them and one of the endangered animals, the ‘Rhinoceros unicornis’. A questionnaire survey was randomly administered to 200 households in 16 Buffer Zone Village Development Committees and two municipalities of the Chitwan National Park. The survey represented two categories of households, those that were >2 Km and those that were <2 Km from the park boundaries. Socio-economic status variables such as tribe, education, occupation, household annual income, landownership and dependencies on the National Park forest and Buffer zone forest were used to interpret the results. The analysis of results showed a prevalence of negative attitudes that stemmed from (1) the distance: people living closer to the national park boundary reported rhino damaged the most crops near the national park; (2) a lack of compensation for crop losses; (3) indigenous people (e.g., Tharus) living closer to the National Park who traditionally have higher dependencies on the forest resources and (4) households with low income relying heavily on the forest resources of the National Park. However, the increase in the rhino population in the latest census showed an increased level of awareness among the park people living near the park. These findings were corroborated in this study because people emphasised the conservation of the rhino, which showed a positive attitude towards rhino. Ultimately, the impact of the rhino on human settlements and livelihoods and vice versa is an on-going conflict that needs to be resolved to preserve the existence of the rhino in Nepal’s protected areas. The role of the government, the National Park authority, and different International and National government organisations are necessary to enhance the livelihoods of people surrounding the national park and to govern wildlife conservation.