<p> The globular cluster system of a nearby giant elliptical galaxy, NGC 5128 is studied to place constraints on the formation history of the galaxy. In this thesis, we have identified 190 new globular clusters via radial velocity measurements, bringing the total known population of globular clusters to 605 within this galaxy. We have examined the colour and spatial distributions of the globular cluster system and find it is bimodal in colour, with both a red and blue globular cluster population. The blue population is more spatially extended than the red, and both populations fall off in number density with radius as a power-law. There is a clear lack of globular clusters along the isophotal minor axis of the galaxy beyond a galactocentric radius of 15' warranting further search. With this new dataset, we have measured the ages, metallicities, and formation timescales for 72 globular clusters. The spectroscopic metallicity distribution function is bimodal indicating there is a metal-rich and metal-poor globular cluster population that corresponds to the red and blue globular clusters, respectively. We find the majority of both metal-rich (56%) and metal-poor (92%) globular clusters are older than 8 Gyr, comparable to the Milky Way globular cluster system. We do find a smaller fraction, 18% of our sample, are metal-rich globular clusters with ages younger than 5 Gyr, while the remaining globular clusters have intermediate ages between 5 -8 Gyr. The formation times of these globular clusters, estimated by their alpha-to-iron abundance ratios, indicate they formed quickly, on a timescale similar to globular clusters in most spiral galaxies, but on slower timescales than those in some other giant elliptical galaxies. The kinematics of the full globular cluster system is analyzed, as well as for the metal-rich and metal-poor globular clusters separately, as a function of galactocentric radius. We find the metal-poor globular cluster system has a small rotation signature of 17±14 km s-1 around no clearly defined axis and its dynamics are dominated by dispersion. The metal-rich globular cluster system has a mild rotation of 41 ± 15 km s-1 about the galaxy's isophotal major axis, following the rotation of a representative field star population, the planetary nebulae. The motion of the metal-rich globular cluster system is also dominated by random motion. We estimate the mass of the galaxy to be (5.5 ± 1.9) x 1011 with a mass-to-light ratio of 15.35 M0 /L80 using the globular cluster M0 population out to 20'. This estimate places NGC 5128 on a mass scale similar to other giant elliptical galaxies. The evidence collected suggests that NGC 5128 formed in a hierarchical scenario, gradually building up larger structure from smaller protogalaxies at early times in the history of the Universe. The group environment of NGC 5128 may have prolonged star formation within the galaxy as well, enabling a small spread in the old ages of globular clusters and also slowing the formation timescales compared to globular clusters in other giant elliptical galaxies. Results from this thesis also support more recent accretions in the history of NGC 5128, building up the more metal-rich and young globular clusters, which have a different rotation axis than the rest of the population. </p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The main objective of this thesis is the development of a nonparametric sequential estimation technique for the off-pulse interval(s) of a source function originating from a pulsar. It is important to identify the off-pulse interval of each pulsar accurately, since the properties of the off-pulse emissions are further researched by astrophysicists in an attempt to detect potential emissions from the associated pulsar wind nebula (PWN). The identification technique currently used in the literature is subjective in nature, since it is based on the visual inspection of the histogram estimate of the pulsar light curve. The developed nonparametric estimation technique is not only objective in nature, but also accurate in the estimation of the off-pulse interval of a pulsar, as evident from the simulation study and the application of the developed technique to observed pulsar data. The first two chapters of this thesis are devoted to a literature study that provides background information on the pulsar environment and -ray astronomy, together with an explanation of the on-pulse and off-pulse interval of a pulsar and the importance thereof for the present study. This is followed by a discussion on some fundamental circular statistical ideas, as well as an overview of kernel density estimation techniques. These two statistical topics are then united in order to illustrate kernel density estimation techniques applied to circular data, since this concept is the starting point of the developed nonparametric sequential estimation technique. Once the basic theoretical background of the pulsar environment and circular kernel density estimation has been established, the new sequential off-pulse interval estimator is formulated. The estimation technique will be referred to as `SOPIE'. A number of tuning parameters form part of SOPIE, and therefore the performed simulation study not only serves as an evaluation of the performance of SOPIE, but also as a mechanism to establish which tuning parameter configurations consistently perform better than some other configurations. In conclusion, the optimal parameter configurations are utilised in the application of SOPIE to pulsar data. For several pulsars, the sequential off-pulse interval estimators are compared to the off-pulse intervals published in research papers, which were identified with the subjective \eye-ball" technique. It is found that the sequential off-pulse interval estimators are closely related to the off-pulse intervals identified with subjective visual inspection, with the benefit that the estimated intervals are objectively obtained with a nonparametric estimation technique. / PhD (Statistics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The main objective of this thesis is the development of a nonparametric sequential estimation technique for the off-pulse interval(s) of a source function originating from a pulsar. It is important to identify the off-pulse interval of each pulsar accurately, since the properties of the off-pulse emissions are further researched by astrophysicists in an attempt to detect potential emissions from the associated pulsar wind nebula (PWN). The identification technique currently used in the literature is subjective in nature, since it is based on the visual inspection of the histogram estimate of the pulsar light curve. The developed nonparametric estimation technique is not only objective in nature, but also accurate in the estimation of the off-pulse interval of a pulsar, as evident from the simulation study and the application of the developed technique to observed pulsar data. The first two chapters of this thesis are devoted to a literature study that provides background information on the pulsar environment and -ray astronomy, together with an explanation of the on-pulse and off-pulse interval of a pulsar and the importance thereof for the present study. This is followed by a discussion on some fundamental circular statistical ideas, as well as an overview of kernel density estimation techniques. These two statistical topics are then united in order to illustrate kernel density estimation techniques applied to circular data, since this concept is the starting point of the developed nonparametric sequential estimation technique. Once the basic theoretical background of the pulsar environment and circular kernel density estimation has been established, the new sequential off-pulse interval estimator is formulated. The estimation technique will be referred to as `SOPIE'. A number of tuning parameters form part of SOPIE, and therefore the performed simulation study not only serves as an evaluation of the performance of SOPIE, but also as a mechanism to establish which tuning parameter configurations consistently perform better than some other configurations. In conclusion, the optimal parameter configurations are utilised in the application of SOPIE to pulsar data. For several pulsars, the sequential off-pulse interval estimators are compared to the off-pulse intervals published in research papers, which were identified with the subjective \eye-ball" technique. It is found that the sequential off-pulse interval estimators are closely related to the off-pulse intervals identified with subjective visual inspection, with the benefit that the estimated intervals are objectively obtained with a nonparametric estimation technique. / PhD (Statistics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Dédié à l’étude du ciel en rayons gamma, le satellite Fermi comporte à son bord le Large AreaTelescope (LAT), sensible au rayonnement de 20 MeV à plus de 300 GeV. Sa sensibilité et ses performances grandissantes apportent de plus en plus de contraintes sur les nébuleuses à vent de pulsar. Ces nébuleuses sont alimentées par l’injection permanente d’un vent d’électrons et de positrons relativistes accélérés par l’onde de choc délimitant la nébuleuse. Ces particules chargées rayonnent dans les différents domaines du spectre électromagnétique et notamment dans le domaine des rayons gamma à l’aide du processus de diffusion Compton inverse. Cette thèse présente l’étude morphologique et spectrale détaillée de deux sources potentiellement associées à des nébuleuses : MSH 11-62 et HESS J1857+026, afin de déterminer si l’émission gamma est produite par des nébuleuses de pulsar. Dans un deuxième temps, l’analyse de toutes les sources reliées à des contreparties détectées par les télescopes Cerenkov permet la détection de six nouvelles nébuleuses de pulsars et candidats dans la gamme de Fermi. Ceci permet d’apporter de nouvelles contraintes sur les propriétés physiques des nébuleuses de pulsar ainsi que sur les mécanismes d’émission à l’aide de modèles et d’études sur la population totale détectée par le LAT. / The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope was launched on 2008 June 11, carrying the Large Area Telescope (LAT), sensitive to gamma-rays from 20 MeV to more than 300 GeV. Its constantly improving sensitivity and performance offer a new opportunity to understand the sources of the gamma-ray sky including Pulsar Wind Nebulae (PWNe). PWNe are powered by the constant injection of a relativistic wind of electrons and positrons from their central pulsars. These charged particles are accelerated at the shock front forming the PWN and emit photons which can be observed along the entire electromagnetic spectrum, including the highenergy gamma-ray domain via inverse Compton scattering.This thesis present the detailed analysis of two sources of gamma-ray emission potentially asso4021ciated to PWNe : MSH 11-62 and HESS J1857+026. The combination of the spatial and spectral analyses provide new elements to confirm these associations.In a second step, we describe a search for counterparts to sources detected by Cerenkov telescopes.This search led to the detection of six new LAT sources potentially associated with PWNe. These studies bring new insights and constraints on the physical properties of the sources as well as on emitting processes by constraining the models and allowing population studies.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Space Physics)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Cool molecular hydrogen H2 may be the ultimate possible constituent to the Milky-Way missing baryon. We describe a new way to search for such transparent matter in the Galactic disc and halo, through the diffractive and refractive effects on the light of background stars. By simulating the phase delay induced by a turbulent medium, we computed the corresponding illumination pattern on the earth for an extended source and a given passband. We show that in favorable cases, the light of a background star can be subjected to stochastic fluctuations of the order of a few percent at a characteristic time scale of a few minutes. We have searched for scintillation induced by molecular gas in visible dark nebulae as well as by hypothetical halo clumpuscules of cool molecular hydrogen (H2_He) during two nights, using the NTT telescope and the IR SOFI detector. Amongst a few thousands of monitored stars, we found one light-curve that is compatible with a strong scintillation effect through a turbulent structure in the B68 nebula. Because no candidate were found toward the SMC, we are able to establish upper limits on the contribution of gas clumpuscules to the Galactic halo mass. We show that the short time-scale monitoring of a few 10^6 star _ hour in the visible band with a >4 m telescope and a fast readout camera should allow one to interestingly quantify or constrain the contribution of turbulent molecular gas to the Galactic halo.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Space Physics)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Space Physics)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Dédié à l’étude de l’astronomie gamma, le satellite Fermi a été lancé le 11 juin 2008. Il comporte à sonbord l’instrument Large Area Telescope (LAT), sensible au rayonnement gamma dans la gamme d’énergie de20 MeV à 300 GeV. Bien que la nébuleuse du Crabe ait été étudiée dans la gamme d’énergie 70 MeV à 30GeV couverte par son précédesseur, l’expérience CGRO-EGRET, aucune nébuleuse n’a jamais été clairementidentifiée dans le domaine des rayons gamma de haute énergie jusqu’au lancement de Fermi.Les pulsars alimentent les nébuleuses qui les entourent par l’injection permanente d’un vent d’électrons etpositrons relativistes qui, accélérés au niveau de l’onde de choc délimitant les nébuleuses de pulsars, émettentun rayonnement pouvant être observé dans les différents domaines du spectre électromagnétique, et notammentdans le domaine des rayons gamma de haute énergie.Les données recueillies par le Fermi-LAT au cours des deux premières années de mission ont désormaispermis la détection et l’identification de trois nébuleuses et de leurs pulsars associés (nébuleuses du Crabe, deVela-X et de MSH 15-52) ainsi que de la nébuleuse de pulsar HESS J1825-137 découverte par les instrumentsau sol dédiés à l’astronomie gamma de très haute énergie.Les résultats des analyses temporelle, spectrale et morphologique réalisées sur les systèmes pulsars/nébuleuses détectés par le LAT sont exposés dans ce manuscrit. La synthèse des études systématiquesréalisées (i) dans les régions comportant un pulsar émetteur en rayons gamma et (ii) dans les régions comportant une source émettrice de rayons gamma de très haute énergie étant identifiée en tant que nébuleuse depulsar ou candidate en tant que telle, sont également présentés dans cette thèse. Ces études apportent de nouvelles contraintes sur les propriétés physiques des sources ainsi que sur les mécanismes de rayonnement mis enjeu dans la magnétosphère des pulsars et au sein de leurs nébuleuses. / The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope was launched on 2008 June 11, carrying the Large Area Telescope(LAT), sensitive to gamma-rays in the 20 MeV – 300 GeV energy range. The Crab Nebula had been detectedand studied in the 70 MeV – 30 GeV band using the CGRO-EGRET experiment, but no pulsar wind nebula(PWN) had ever been firmly identified in the high energy gamma-ray domain.PWNe are powered by the constant injection of a relativistic wind of electrons and positrons from theircentral pulsars. These charged particles are accelerated at the shock front forming the PWN and emit photons which can be observed along the entire electromagnetic spectrum, including the high energy gamma-raydomain.Data provided by the Fermi-LAT during the first two years of the mission have allowed the detection andthe identification of three PWNe and their associated pulsars (Crab Nebula, Vela X and MSH 15-52) as well asthe PWN HESS J1825-137 discovered by ground-based experiments sensitive to very high energy gamma-rays.Results of temporal, spectral and morphological analyses of the pulsar/PWN systems detected by Fermi-LAT, as well as results of systematic studies performed (i) around every gamma-ray pulsar detected by the LATand (ii) around every very high energy source identified as a PWN or a PWN candidate are presented in thisdissertation. These studies bring new insights and constraints on the physical properties of the sources as wellas on emitting processes in pulsar magnetospheres and in PWNe.

Les étoiles massives représentent un des principaux contributeurs à l'enrichissement des galaxies en éléments lourds et en poussière interstellaire. L’ultime étape de leur évolution est représentée par le stade Wolf-Rayet (WR). Les étoiles WR présentent la particularité de générer un vent stellaire radiatif dense, qui peut interagir avec celui d’un compagnon proche, donnant naissance à un environnement de poussière en forme de spirale. Les ordres de grandeur associés à ce type d’objet sont spectaculaires : avec un taux de formation de poussière équivalent à la masse de la planète Mars produite chaque année, elles rivalisent avec les producteurs historiques de la poussière que sont les étoiles de la branche asymptotique des géantes (AGB) ou les supernovæ (SN). Les étoiles WR à poussière pourraient ainsi répondre à une problématique bien connue : d’où vient la poussière observée dans les galaxies ? Le présent travail de thèse vise donc à enrichir nos connaissances sur ce problème à travers tous les aspects de la chaîne scientifique : de l’observation à l’analyse de données en employant différents niveaux de sophistication en modélisation numérique (analytique, transfert radiatif et hydrodynamique). Le premier aspect exploré par cette thèse concerne la modélisation des nébuleuses spirales de poussières. J’ai d’abord développé un modèle analytique permettant de contraindre les aspects géométriques des spirales. Ce dernier inclut différentes hypothèses physiques comme la prise en compte d’un rayon de sublimation, de différents types de structure interne, etc. J’ai ensuite inclut le transfert de rayonnement au modèle géométrique afin de relier la distribution d’intensité de l’objet (l’image) à sa distribution en densité. Ce modèle 3-D de spirale de poussière permet d’étudier les effets d’opacité et d’ombrage liés à la masse ou au type de poussière considérée. J’ai également développé un modèle 3-D axisymétrique en transfert de rayonnement afin d’assimiler la spirale à une suite d’anneaux concentriques. Il vise à reproduire la distribution d’intensité d’une spirale à un azimut donné et permet une comparaison directe aux profils radiaux d’intensité issus d’observations. Enfin, nous avons mis en place un modèle hydrodynamique 3-D de binaire à interaction de vent, afin d’avoir une idée réaliste des conditions physiques en place au niveau de la zone de nucléation des poussières. Le second aspect abordé par cette thèse se concentre sur l’étude du prototype des nébuleuses spirales de poussière, nommé WR 104. J’explore ici toutes les échelles spatiales de l’objet : des grandes échelles avec l’imageur VLT/VISIR afin de faire le lien avec milieu interstellaire, aux régions les plus internes avec l’instrument VLTI/AMBER pour sonder la zone de nucléation de poussière, en passant par l’instrument d’optique adaptative extrême, VLT/SPHERE, afin d’étudier les premiers tours de la spirale. Le troisième et dernier aspect concerne l’instrument de seconde génération à équiper l’interféromètre européen (VLTI) : MATISSE. Il est le tout premier instrument à opérer en simultané dans les bandes L, M et N en recombinant la lumière issue de quatre télescopes. MATISSE a été conçu pour étudier une variété de cas scientifiques : des disques protoplanétaires aux noyaux actifs de galaxie, en passant par les environnements circumstellaires. Afin de préparer les premiers programmes observations, j’ai développé un outil automatisé, nommé PREVIS, visant à prédire l’observabilité des objets. Dans le cadre des nébuleuses spirales, j’ai pu explorer les capacités de l’instrument en reconstruction d’image en testant différents aspects (tailles, inclinaison, couverture (u-v), etc.). Avec un pouvoir de résolution spatiale de 3 mas à 3,5 µm, MATISSE permettra d’étudier ces objets de façon unique, en résolvant pour la première fois l’épaisseur des bras spiraux, leurs structures internes ou la position exacte du bord de sublimation. / Massive stars are one of the major contributors to the enrichment of galaxies in heavy elements and interstellar dust. The last stage of their evolution is represented by the Wolf-Rayet phase (WR). WR stars generate a dense radiative stellar wind, which can interact with the wind from a close companion and cause a spiral dust environment called pinwheel nebula. The orders of magnitude associated with this kind of object are spectacular: with a dust formation rate equivalent to the mass of the planet Mars produced each year, WR stars compete with the historical dust producers, like the stars of the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) or the supernovae (SN). Dusty WR stars could thus answer a well-known problem: where does the dust observed in galaxies come from? This thesis aims at enriching our knowledge about this problem using all aspects of the scientific chain: from observation to data analysis by using different levels of sophistication in numerical modelling (analytical, radiative transfer and hydrodynamics). The first aspect explored by this thesis concerns the modelling of spiral dust nebulae. I first developed an analytical model for the spiral to constrain the geometrical aspects of the spiral, including a number of physical hypothesis like the dust sublimation radius and different types of internal structure. The next step consisted to include the radiative transfer in the geometrical model in order to link the intensity distribution of the object (the image) to its density distribution. This 3-D model of spiral allow to study the opacity and shadowing effects related to the dust mass considered. Similarly, I developed a 3-D axisymmetric radiative transfer model to mimic the spiral into a series of concentric rings. This model aims to reproduce the intensity distribution of a spiral at a given azimuth and allows a direct comparison with the radial intensity profiles derived from observations. Finally, we implemented a 3-D hydrodynamic model of a wind-wind interacting binary to get a realistic idea of the physical conditions in places around the dust nucleation zone. The second aspect addressed by this thesis focuses to the study of the prototype of the pinwheel nebula, called WR104. Such object is an ideal laboratory to study the problem of dust nucleation around massive stars. I explored all spatial scales of WR 104: From the large scale with VLT/VISIR to study the link with the interstellar medium, to the internal regions with VLTI/AMBER to probe the dust nucleation zone, including intermediate angular resolution to study the pinwheel structure with extreme adaptive optics instrument VLT/SPHERE. The third and last aspect deals with the second generation of the instrument installed at the European Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI): MATISSE. It is the first instrument operating simultaneously in the L, M and N bands by recombining the light coming from four telescopes. MATISSE was developed to study different scientific cases: protoplanetary disks, the circumstellar environments and the active galactic nuclei. To prepare the first observation programs, I developed an automated tool, called PREVIS, to determine the observability of objects according to their magnitude and celestial coordinate. In the context of spiral nebulae, I explored the image reconstruction capabilities of the instrument by testing different aspects: geometric (size, inclination, opening angle, etc.) and observational (coverage (u-v), sampling). The unprecedented spatial resolution of MATISSE of 3 mas at 3.5 µm will allow to study these objects in a unique way, resolving for the first time the thickness of the spiral arm, its internal structure or the exact position of the sublimation radius.