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No / Solid phase orientation of polymers is one of the most successful routes to enhancement of polymer properties. It unlocks the potential of molecular orientation for the achievement of a range of enhanced physical properties. We provide here an overview of techniques developed in our laboratories for structuring polymers by solid phase orientation processing routes, with a particular focus on die drawing, which have allowed control of significant enhancements of a single property or combinations of properties, including Young's modulus, strength, and density. These have led to notable commercial exploitations, and examples of load bearing low density materials and shape memory materials are discussed.

In Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis (FEA) applied to structures, displacements at which the tangent stiffness matrix KT becomes singular are called critical points, and correspond to instabilities such as buckling or elastoplastic softening (e.g., necking). Prior to the introduction of Arc Length Methods (ALMs), critical points posed severe computational challenges, which was unfortunate since behavior at instabilities is of great interest as a precursor to structural failure. The original ALM was shown to be capable in some circumstances of continued computation at critical points, but limited success and unattractive features of the formulation were noted and addressed in extensive subsequent research. The widely used Crisfield Cylindrical and Spherical ALMs may be viewed as representing the 'state-of-the-art'. The more recent Stiff Arc Length method, which is attractive on fundamental grounds, was introduced in 2004, but without implementation, benchmarking or performance assessment. The present thesis addresses (a) implementation and (b) performance comparisons for the Crisfield and Stiff methods, using simple benchmarks formulated to incorporate elastoplastic softening. It is seen that, in contrast to the Crisfield methods, the Stiff ALM consistently continues accurate computation at, near and beyond critical points.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-08T15:56:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Andre Olah Neto.pdf: 11111826 bytes, checksum: 36a7c3a3c11e61f18d8a74f06d619cc0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-04-10 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / In recent decades the automobile industry has made a great effort to deal with ecological and security challenges. To do so, it was necessary to develop vehicles which are lighter, more economical and have a greater intrusion resistance when subjected to a crash. This was made possible, among other actions, by the development of advanced high strength steels, associated with the use of new manufacturing processes. Inside this approach the use of the hot stamping and the emergence of 22MnB5 boron-alloyed steel, with high hardenability, stand up. The hot stamping operation has gained great importance for enabling the manufacture of strategic components of high complexity and high mechanical resistance, associated with reasonable toughness. In order to ensure its technological evolution this process has been widely studied by numerous authors, so that the phenomenon was better understood, allowing better control as well as the quality and reliability requirements involved in the stamped components. This focus led to the development of this work, whose main objective was to study the hot stamping process, evaluating the mechanical and thermal effects. To achieve this aim an experimental apparatus was developed which allowed simulating the main thermomechanical aspects involved, such as the temperature, the conformation and the cooling. The purpose was to reproduce the conditions of the process and evaluate the influence of certain variables of the cooling speed on microstructure and on the final properties of the material, in order to study and understand some phenomena involved. This apparatus was composed of a heating furnace, an aluminum cooler, water cooled, operated at low pressure of closing and a control system, assembled on a mechanical testing 12 machine to promote the desired deformation. The experimental work was carried out in three stages. Initially, the hot plastic behavior of 22MnB5 steel was studied, evaluating the effect of temperature and strain rate on the mechanical characteristics, to determine the conditions for necking formation. In the second stage, the kinetics of phase transformation was studied, seeking to understand the effect of heating and cooling conditions on the cooling rate and on the final properties after quenching. In the last step, the plastic behavior on the kinetics of phase transformation, i.e., the effect of necking on cooling, was studied. The main objective was to show that the necking, depending on its intensity and geometry, generates the formation of a clearance between the cooler and the surface material, reducing the cooling rate to the point of affecting the mechanical properties in this region. Despite being localized, it can jeopardize the stamped component performance forming a fragile region of low mechanical strength and low toughness. It was concluded that hot plastic deformation undergone during the hot-stamping has a significant influence on the phase transformation, being necessary the proper control of process conditions so that the necking is also controlled, thus ensuring the structural homogeneity of the component and its performance. / Nas últimas décadas a indústria automobilística tem realizado um grande esforço em atender os desafios ecológicos e de segurança e para isto foi necessário desenvolver veículos mais leves, econômicos e com maior resistência à intrusão quando submetidos a um acidente. Isto foi alcançado, entre outras ações, através do desenvolvimento de aços avançados de elevada resistência mecânica, associado à utilização de novos processos de fabricação. Dentro deste enfoque se destaca dois aspectos, a utilização do processo de estampagem a quente e o surgimento do aço 22MnB5 de elevada temperabilidade ligado ao boro. A operação de estampagem a quente tem ganhado uma forte importância por possibilitar a fabricação de componentes estratégicos de elevada complexidade e elevada resistência mecânica, associada à razoável resistência ao impacto. No sentido de garantir sua evolução tecnológica este processo tem sido amplamente estudado por inúmeros autores, para que os fenômenos envolvidos pudessem ser mais bem entendidos, permitindo um melhor controle bem como o atendimento dos requisitos de qualidade e a confiabilidade envolvida nos componentes estampados. Com este enfoque desenvolveu-se este trabalho, cujo principal objetivo foi estudar o processo de estampagem a quente, avaliando os efeitos mecânicos e térmicos. Para este fim foi desenvolvido um aparato experimental, que permitiu simular os principais aspectos termomecânicas envolvidos, como a temperatura, a conformação e o resfriamento. O propósito foi o de reproduzir as condições do processo e avaliar a influência de determinadas variáveis sobre a velocidade de resfriamento, sobre a microestrutura e sobre as propriedades finais do material, no sentido de estudar e entender 10 alguns fenômenos envolvidos. Este aparato foi dotado de um forno de aquecimento, de um resfriador de alumínio refrigerado a água, operado a baixa pressão de fechamento e de um sistema de controle, montados sobre uma máquina de ensaios mecânicos para promover a deformação desejada. O trabalho experimental foi realizado em três etapas. Inicialmente foi estudado o comportamento plástico a quente do aço 22MnB5, avaliando-se o efeito da temperatura e da velocidade de deformação sobre as características mecânicas, determinando-se as condições para formação da estricção. Na segunda etapa foi estudada a cinética de transformação de fase, procurando-se entender o efeito das condições de aquecimento e do resfriamento sobre a velocidade de resfriamento e sobre as propriedades finais deste aço após têmpera. Na última etapa se relacionou o comportamento plástico sobre a cinética de transformação de fase, ou seja, o efeito da estricção sobre o resfriamento. O objetivo principal foi mostrar que a estricção, dependendo de sua intensidade e geometria, gera a formação de uma folga localizada entre a superfície do resfriador e do material, reduzindo a velocidade de resfriamento a ponto de afetar as propriedades mecânicas nesta região. Apesar de localizada esta folga pode comprometer o desempenho do componente estampado formando uma região de pouca resistência mecânica. Concluiu-se que a deformação plástica a quente sofrida durante a estampagem a quente apresenta uma significativa influência sobre a transformação de fase, sendo necessário o controle adequado das condições do processo para que a estricção também seja controlada, garantindo assim a homogeneidade estrutural do componente e o seu desempenho.

Der Vortrag beschreibt wie sich mittels der unterschiedlichen Berechnungsverfahren zur Lösung dynamischer Strukturpobleme der Einschlag eines idealisierten Bruchstücks in eine Schutzwand berechnen lässt. Dies wird mittels zweier kommerzieller FEM-Programme beschrieben: a.) Creo Simulate nutzt zur Lösung die Methode der modalen Superposition, d.h., es können nur lineare dynamische Systeme mit rein modaler Dämpfung berechnet werden. Kontakt zwischen zwei Bauteilen lässt sich damit nicht erfassen. Die unbekannte Kraft-Zeit-Funktion des Einschlagvorganges muss also geeignet abgeschätzt und als äußere Last auf die Schutzwand aufgebracht werden. Je dynamischer der Einschlagvorgang, desto eher wird der Gültigkeitsbereich des zugrunde liegenden linearen Modells verlassen. b.) Abaqus/Explicit nutzt ein direktes Zeitintegrationsverfahren zur schrittweisen Lösung der zugrunde liegenden Differentialgleichung, die keine tangentiale Steifigkeitsmatrix benötigt. Damit können sowohl Materialnichtlinearitäten als auch Kontakt geeignet erfasst und damit die Kraft-Zeit-Funktion des Einschlages ermittelt werden. Auch bei extrem hochdynamischen Vorgängen liefert diese Methode ein gutes Ergebnis. Es müssen dafür jedoch weit mehr Werkstoffdaten bekannt sein, um das nichtlineare elasto-plastische Materialverhalten mit Schädigungseffekten korrekt zu beschreiben. Die Schwierigkeiten der Werkstoffdatenbestimmung werden in den Grundlagen erläutert. / The presentation describes how to analyze the impact of an idealized fragment into a stell protective panel with different dynamic analysis methods. Two different commercial Finite Element codes are used for this: a.) Creo Simulate: This code uses the method of modal superposition for analyzing the dynamic response of linear dynamic systems. Therefore, only modal damping and no contact can be used. The unknown force-vs.-time curve of the impact event cannot be computed, but must be assumed and applied as external force to the steel protective panel. As more dynamic the impact, as sooner the range of validity of the underlying linear model is left. b.) Abaqus/Explicit: This code uses a direct integration method for an incremental (step by step) solution of the underlying differential equation, which does not need a tangential stiffness matrix. In this way, matieral nonlinearities as well as contact can be obtained as one result of the FEM analysis. Even for extremely high-dynamic impacts, good results can be obtained. But, the nonlinear elasto-plastic material behavior with damage initiation and damage evolution must be characterized with a lot of effort. The principal difficulties of the material characterization are described.

Der Vortrag beschreibt wie sich mittels der unterschiedlichen Berechnungsverfahren zur Lösung dynamischer Strukturpobleme der Einschlag eines idealisierten Bruchstücks in eine Schutzwand berechnen lässt. Dies wird mittels zweier kommerzieller FEM-Programme beschrieben: a.) Creo Simulate nutzt zur Lösung die Methode der modalen Superposition, d.h., es können nur lineare dynamische Systeme mit rein modaler Dämpfung berechnet werden. Kontakt zwischen zwei Bauteilen lässt sich damit nicht erfassen. Die unbekannte Kraft-Zeit-Funktion des Einschlagvorganges muss also geeignet abgeschätzt und als äußere Last auf die Schutzwand aufgebracht werden. Je dynamischer der Einschlagvorgang, desto eher wird der Gültigkeitsbereich des zugrunde liegenden linearen Modells verlassen. b.) Abaqus/Explicit nutzt ein direktes Zeitintegrationsverfahren zur schrittweisen Lösung der zugrunde liegenden Differentialgleichung, die keine tangentiale Steifigkeitsmatrix benötigt. Damit können sowohl Materialnichtlinearitäten als auch Kontakt geeignet erfasst und damit die Kraft-Zeit-Funktion des Einschlages ermittelt werden. Auch bei extrem hochdynamischen Vorgängen liefert diese Methode ein gutes Ergebnis. Es müssen dafür jedoch weit mehr Werkstoffdaten bekannt sein, um das nichtlineare elasto-plastische Materialverhalten mit Schädigungseffekten korrekt zu beschreiben. Die Schwierigkeiten der Werkstoffdatenbestimmung werden in den Grundlagen erläutert. / The presentation describes how to analyze the impact of an idealized fragment into a stell protective panel with different dynamic analysis methods. Two different commercial Finite Element codes are used for this: a.) Creo Simulate: This code uses the method of modal superposition for analyzing the dynamic response of linear dynamic systems. Therefore, only modal damping and no contact can be used. The unknown force-vs.-time curve of the impact event cannot be computed, but must be assumed and applied as external force to the steel protective panel. As more dynamic the impact, as sooner the range of validity of the underlying linear model is left. b.) Abaqus/Explicit: This code uses a direct integration method for an incremental (step by step) solution of the underlying differential equation, which does not need a tangential stiffness matrix. In this way, matieral nonlinearities as well as contact can be obtained as one result of the FEM analysis. Even for extremely high-dynamic impacts, good results can be obtained. But, the nonlinear elasto-plastic material behavior with damage initiation and damage evolution must be characterized with a lot of effort. The principal difficulties of the material characterization are described.

Der Vortrag beschreibt die Grundlagen der Elasto-Plastizität sowie die softwaretechnische Anwendung mit dem FEM-Programm Creo Simulate bzw. Pro/MECHANICA von PTC. Der erste Teil des Vortrages beschreibt die Charakteristika plastischen Verhaltens, unterschiedliche plastische Materialgesetze, Fließkriterien bei mehrachsiger Beanspruchung und unterschiedliche Verfestigungsmodelle. Im zweiten Vortragsteil werden Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Berechnung elasto-plastischer Probleme mit der Software dargestellt sowie Anwendungstipps gegeben. Im dritten Vortragsteil schließlich werden verschiedene Beispiele vorgestellt, davon besonders ausführlich das Verhalten einer einachsigen elasto-plastischen Zugprobe vor und nach dem Eintreten der Einschnürdehnung. / This presentation describes the basics of elasto-plasticity and its application with the finite element software Creo Simulate (formerly Pro/MECHANICA) from PTC. The first part describes the characteristics of plastic behavior, different plastic material laws, yield criteria for multiaxial stress states and different hardening models. In the second part, the opportunities and limitations of analyzing elasto-plastic problems with the FEM-code are described and user information is provided. The last part finally presents different examples. Deeply treated is the behavior of a uniaxial tensile test specimen before and after elongation with necking appears.

Der Vortrag beschreibt die Grundlagen der Elasto-Plastizität sowie die softwaretechnische Anwendung mit dem FEM-Programm Creo Simulate bzw. Pro/MECHANICA von PTC. Der erste Teil des Vortrages beschreibt die Charakteristika plastischen Verhaltens, unterschiedliche plastische Materialgesetze, Fließkriterien bei mehrachsiger Beanspruchung und unterschiedliche Verfestigungsmodelle. Im zweiten Vortragsteil werden Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Berechnung elasto-plastischer Probleme mit der Software dargestellt sowie Anwendungstipps gegeben. Im dritten Vortragsteil schließlich werden verschiedene Beispiele vorgestellt, davon besonders ausführlich das Verhalten einer einachsigen elasto-plastischen Zugprobe vor und nach dem Eintreten der Einschnürdehnung. / This presentation describes the basics of elasto-plasticity and its application with the finite element software Creo Simulate (formerly Pro/MECHANICA) from PTC. The first part describes the characteristics of plastic behavior, different plastic material laws, yield criteria for multiaxial stress states and different hardening models. In the second part, the opportunities and limitations of analyzing elasto-plastic problems with the FEM-code are described and user information is provided. The last part finally presents different examples. Deeply treated is the behavior of a uniaxial tensile test specimen before and after elongation with necking appears.