A better understanding of the neural mechanisms associated with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and related cognitive deficits can potentially clarify the neural circuits involved in ADHD symptoms, help define neurobiologically informed subtypes and aid in developing more refined treatments. Two neurotransmitter (NT) systems have been implicated in ADHD: Dopamine (DA), and Norepinephrine (NE), and the primary cognitive deficits associated with ADHD are in working memory, response inhibition, reaction time variability, and reward processing. Frank et al. (2007a) proposes, based on computational models, that DA is associated with deficits in reward-based learning and updating of working memory, while NE is associated with deficits in response inhibition and greater response variability. Therefore, it might be possible to learn more about the NT systems' specific roles in ADHD by studying the associated cognitive deficits. The primary goal of this study was to assess performance in adolescents with and without ADHD on a number of cognitive tasks. We expected that the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Inattentive Subtype (ADHD-I) group would perform the worst on NE tasks and that the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Combined Subtype (ADHD-C) group would perform the worst on DA tasks, and that both groups would perform worse than controls on all tasks. Instead, we found that the ADHD-I group performed the most poorly on updating of working memory, while the ADHD-C group performed the best on this variable. However, the ADHD-C group performed worst on overall working memory. Dimensional analyses revealed that hyperactivity/impulsivity is positively correlated with updating of working memory, while inattention is negatively correlated with updating of working memory. In addition, hyperactivity/impulsivity was positively correlated with reaction time variability. In conclusion, it is likely that the roles of these NT systems are not as mutually exclusive as initially expected. It is also possible that our ADHD group was performing more like control groups in other studies, which might be due to a more 'pure' ADHD sample with less comorbid Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Conduct disorder (CD), or could be due to a less symptomatic ADHD group.

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The amphibian retina is commonly used as a model system for studying function and mechanism of the visual system in electrophysiology, since the neural structure and synaptic mechanism of the amphibian retina are similar to higher vertebrate retinas. I determined the specific subtypes of receptors and channels that are involved in chemical and electrical synapses in the amphibian retina. My study indicates that glycine receptor subunits of GlyRº1, 3 and 4 and glutamate receptor subunit of GluR4 are present in bipolar and amacrine dendrites and axons to conduct chemical synapses in the retinal circuit. I also found that the gap junction channel, pannexin 1a (panx1a), is present in cone-dominated On-bipolar cells and rod-dominated amacrine processes possibly to connect rod-and cone-pathway in the inner retina. In addition, panx1a may form hemi-channels that pass ATP and Ca2+ signals. The findings of my study fill the gap of our knowledge about the subtypes of neurotransmitter receptors and gap junction channels conducting visual information in particular cell types and synaptic areas. / by Yufei Liu. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2011. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2011. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

During their lifecycle, cells must produce forces which play important roles in several subcellular processes. Force-producing components are organized into macromolecular assemblies of proteins that are often dynamic, and are constructed or disassembled in response to various signals. The forces themselves may directly be involved in subcellular mechanics, or they may influence mechanosensing proteins either within or outside these structures. These proteins play different roles: they may ensure the stability of the force-producing structure, or they may send signals to a coupled process. The generation and sensing of subcellular forces is an active research topic, and this thesis focusses on the roles of these forces in two key areas: cell division and neurotransmitter release. The first part of the thesis deals with the effect of force on cell wall growth regulation during division in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, a cigar-shaped, unicellular organism. During cytokinesis, the last stage of cell division in which the cell physically divides into two, a tense cytokinetic ring anchored to the cellular membrane assembles and constricts, accompanied by the inward centripetal growth of new cell wall, called septum, in the wake of the inward-moving membrane. The contour of the septum hole maintains its circularity as it reduces in size—an indication of regulated growth. To characterize the cell wall growth process, we performed image analysis on contours of the leading edge of the septum obtained via fluorescence microscopy in the labs of our collaborators. We quantified the deviations from circularity using the edge roughness. The roughness was spatially correlated, suggestive of regulated growth. We hypothesized that the cell wall growers are mechanosensitive and respond to the force exerted by the ring. A mathematical model based on this hypothesis then showed that this leads to corrections of roughness in a curvature-dependent fashion. Thus, one of the roles of ring tension is to communicate with the mechanosensitive septum growth processes and coordinate growth to ensure the daughter cells have a functional cell wall. The second part of the thesis deals with how ring tension is produced and sustained, using experimentally measured ultrastructure of the cytokinetic ring itself. Recent super-resolution experiments have revealed that several key proteins of the fission yeast constricting ring are organized into membrane-anchored complexes called nodes. The force producing protein myosin-II in these nodes exerts pulling forces on polymeric actin filaments that are synthesized from polymerizers residing in the nodes. How these forces are marshalled to generate ring tension, and how such an organization maintains its stability is unclear. Using a mathematical model with coarse-grained representations of actin and myosin, we showed that such a node-based organization reproduces previously measured ring tension values. The model explains the origin of experimentally observed bidirectional motion of the nodes in the ring, and showed that turnover of the nodes rescues the ring from inherent contractile instabilities that would be expected when a force-producing structure is made up of small object that effectively attract one another. Finally, the third part of the thesis deals with the role of forces produced by SNARE proteins at synapses between two neurons during neurotransmission. A key step here is synaptic release, where inside a neuron, membrane-bound compartments called vesicles filled with neurotransmitter fuse with the membrane of the neuron forming a transient fusion pore, and release their contents to the outside of the cell. These neurotransmitter molecules are sensed by another neuron that is physically separate from the neuron in question and this neuron propagates the signal henceforth. Thus, regulation of neurotransmitter release is a key step in neurotransmission. A fusion machinery consisting of several proteins facilitates membrane fusion, and pore nucleation requires the formation of a SNARE protein complex in this machinery, whose role during pore dilation is unclear. Using electrophysiological measurements, our collaborators experimentally measured the statistics of the size of single fusion pores in vitro, and observed that average pore sizes increased with the number of SNARE proteins. Using mathematical modeling, we showed that this effect was due to an entropic crowding force that expands the pore and increases with the number of SNAREs, and counteracts the energy barrier to fusion pore expansion.

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Medications that treat diseases such as Parkinson???s disease work by regulating dopamine transmission at synapses. Surprisingly, little is known about the mechanisms regulating dopamine release at synapses. In this thesis, we study mechanisms that regulate vesicle recycling in axons and dendrites of dopamine neurons. Key questions we addressed were: (1) Are vesicles in axons and dendrites associated with the same regulatory proteins, and thus by implication the same regulatory mechanisms, as in excitatory neurons; (2) Do vesicles undergo recycling, and (3) if so, are they characterised by a distinct pool size and rate of recycling. To study this, we cultured dopamine neurons and used immunocytochemistry to detect vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) and identify axons, dendrites and synaptic proteins, combined with labelling of recycling vesicles using FM 1-43. Vesicles in axons, but not in dendrites, were associated with presynaptic proteins such as Synaptophysin and Bassoon. We identified two kinds of presynaptic sites in axons: ???synaptic??? (located close to soma and dendrites??? and ???orphan???. The recycling vesicle pool size was smaller at orphan sites than at synaptic sites, and the initial rate of vesicle pool release was also lower at orphan sites. Both synaptic and orphan sites exhibited lower rates of vesicle pool release compared to hippocampal synapses, suggesting functional differences in presynaptic physiology between dopamine neurons and hippocampal neurons. In somatodendritic regions, VMAT2 was localised to the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, endosome, and large dense-core vesicles, suggesting that these vesicles might function as a part of the regulated secretory pathway in mediating dopamine release. None of the synaptic vesicle proteins we studied were detected in these regions, although some preliminary evidence of vesicle turnover was detected using FM 1-43 labelling. This thesis provides a detailed analysis of neurotransmitter release mechanisms in dopamine neurons. Our data suggests that presynaptic release of dopamine is mediated by mechanisms similar to those observed in excitatory neurons. In somatodendritic regions, our data suggests that VMAT2 is localised to organelles in secretory pathways, and that distinct mechanisms of release might be present at somatodendritic sites to those present in presynaptic sites. This thesis provides novel methods for analysing vesicle recycling in dopamine neurons, which provides the basis for further studies examining presynaptic function of dopamine neurons in normal brain function, disease, and therapeutic approaches.

Fluorescent analogs of biomolecules have been known as useful probes to study the structure, conformations and dynamics of cellular processes. These probes are more ideal than fluorescent labeled probes, as fluorescent analog probes retain the shape, size, conformation, and recognition element of the natural substrate, while giving useful intracellular information about detection and dynamics of biomolecules. The monoamine neurotransmitters control the central and periphery nervous systems. Serotonin (5-HT), in particular, is a versatile chemical messenger responsible for a multitude of biological processes, such as regulation of emotion, vasoconstriction, and bone metabolism. The study of serotonergic complex pathways is vital and essential in drug discovery for the diseases that result from the depletion and deregulation of serotonin in synapse. The extracellular concentration of serotonin is controlled by several transporters, most preferably the serotonin transporter (SERT). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), along with dual- and triple-acting inhibitors, affect SERT and hence 5-HT in depression and related diseases. In this present investigation, firstly, a set of fluorescent analogs of neurotransmitter probes based on ethylamino-functionalized substrates were successfully designed and these fluorescent probes were synthesized by convenient synthetic methods. Secondly, optical properties of these fluorescent probes were investigated in organic medium, in order to test their suitability for screening and imaging the biological cells. Finally, their uptake was examined in the murine osteocytic cell line, MLO-Y4, platelets of blood sample and HEK-293 cells expressing the dopamine transporter (DAT), norepinephrine transporter (NET) or SERT. The fluorescent probes targeting bone-derived cell line expressing 5-HTT provide useful information in understanding the dynamics of 5-HT regulation with respect to SSRI treatment. A novel fluorescent analog of 5-HT probe was developed that may be utilized to study 5-HTT function in the context of 5-HT uptake or regulation in cell culture, tissue explants, or even in vivo.

Trace amines (TAs), tryptamine, tyramine, octopamine, and beta-phenylethylamine, named for their low endogenous concentrations in mammals, are related to the classical monoamine transmitters, but have been understudied and thought of as false transmitters. They share structural, physiological, pharmacological, and metabolic similarities with the monoamines, including synthesis by the aromatic-L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) enzyme. In 2001, a new class of receptors preferentially activated by the TAs, termed trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs), was discovered establishing a mechanism for TA actions independent of classic monoaminergic mechanisms. While the TAs and some of their receptors are present in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS), their physiologic role remains uncertain. I hypothesized that the TAs are found intrinsically in the spinal cord, and that they are able to modulate spinal neural networks. Using immunohistochemistry, numerous spinal neurons were identified that express AADC, TAs, and TAARs. Similar results were seen for AADC and TAAR1 with in situ hybridization. The most consistent observation was for labeling D cells associated with the central canal and in motoneurons. Overall, these results provided evidence for the presence of an anatomical substrate onto which the TAs could have intrinsic biological actions in the spinal cord. Using exogenous application of the TAs in the isolated spinal cord in vitro, and in vivo in the mid-thoracic chronically spinalized, I showed that the TAs could induce rhythmic locomotor-like activity. TA injection-induced hindlimb motor rhythms observed in chronic spinalized animals, supports TA spinal actions independent of the descending monoaminergic systems. In the presence of NMDA, TA applications recruited a variety of rhythmic motor patterns in the isolated spinal cord. This ranged from locomotor activity indistinguishable from 5-HT/NMDA induced locomotion to complex patterns including, an episodic form of locomotion where there were locomotor bouts with intervening quiescent periods. TA actions of pattern generating circuits had slower kinetics of activation than 5-HT and NA, were attenuated in the presence of monoamine transport inhibitors, and had increased intracellular labeling when incubated in a nominally Na+-free solution. Together these results suggest that the TAs require transport into neurons to exert their actions, and that transport occurs by Na+-dependent monoamine transporters as well as Na+-independent transporters. Finally, I used the in vitro isolated spinal cord with attached hindlimbs to record electromyographic (EMG) activity from various hindlimb muscles to compare the relationship between the TAs and serotonin (5-HT) evoked motor coordination and to examine the ability of the TAs to modulate ongoing 5-HT and NMDA locomotor-like activity. The TAs produced both the continuous and episodic patterns on muscles as observed in ventral root recordings, but EMG recordings provided more detailed insight into specific muscle actions. The TAs also generally increased both frequency and amplitude of ongoing 5-HT locomotor frequency, with tyramine and octopamine also particularly able to alter 5-HT motor coordination patterns.