Os praguicidas organofosforados (OPs) são amplamente utilizados na indústria química e na agricultura em todo o mundo. Muitos deles são potenciais causadores da \"Neuropatia Retardada Induzida por Organofosforados\" (NRIOP), caracterizada pela degeneração distal de axônios do sistema nervoso central e periférico (degeneração do tipo Walleriana). O praguicida triclorfom (dimetil 2,2,2-tricloro-1-hidroxietil fosfonato) tem sido utilizado em larga escala na produção agrícola e também no controle de vetores transmissores de várias doenças. Há relatos de efeitos neuropáticos em seres humanos expostos ao triclorfom, mas apesar disso, o seu potencial neuropático e seus mecanismos de neurotoxicidade ainda não foram elucidados. Assim, no presente estudo foram avaliados os mecanismos de toxicidade do praguicida OP triclorfom utilizando linhagem SH-SY5Y de neuroblastoma humano como modelo, e também foram avaliados possíveis agentes neuroprotetores em células tratadas com o bem estabelecido indutor da neuropatia mipafox. Foram utilizados como possíveis neuroprotetores: a amilorida e nimodipino (bloqueadores de canais de cálcio tipo T e L respectivamente), MDL 28170 (inibidor (III) de calpaína) e liraglutida (um agonista do \"glucagon like peptide\" -GLP-1). Foram usados o mipafox, como modelo de indução da NRIOP e o paraoxon, como modelo não indutor da NRIOP. Os ensaios de inibição e reativação da esterase susceptível à neuropatia (ESNp) e de citotoxicidade mostraram que somente o mipafox e o triclorfom apresentaram inibição e envelhecimento da ESNp superiores a 70% em concentrações com baixa toxicidade, condição compatível com a indução da NRIOP. A ativação das calpaínas foi observada apenas no tratamento com mipafox, efeito este inibido pela nimodipina, amilorida e pelo MDL 28170. Triclorfom e o mipafox causaram elevação significativa nos níveis de cálcio intracelular e da caspase-3, além de inibir significativamente o crescimento de neuritos. Os três OPs avaliados foram capazes de diminuir a captação da glicose, que foi aumentada nos grupos tratados com mipafox associado com neuroprotetores. As quatro substâncias utilizadas como possíveis neuroprotetoras reduziram significativamente o dano causado pelo mipafox sobre os neuritos. O modelo usado no estudo mostrou-se apropriado para a caracterização dos OP neuropáticos, pois permitiu a diferenciação dos efeitos do mipafox (neuropático) e do paraoxon (não-neuropático). Os dados obtidos indicam que o triclorfom tem potencial indutor de NRIOP, e a amilorida, nimodipino liraglutida e MDL apresentaram potencial neuroprotetor / Organophosphorus (OP) pesticides are widely used in the chemical industry and agriculture around the world. \"Organophosphate Induced Delayed Neuropathy\" (OPIDN) is characterized by distal degeneration of axons of the central and peripheral nervous system (Wallerian-type degeneration). The OP trichlorfom (dimethyl 2,2,2-trichloro-1-hydroxyethyl phosphonate) has been used in large scale in agricultural production and also for the control of vectors that are transmitter of diseases. There are reports of neuropathic effects in humans exposed to trichlorfon, but despite this, its neuropathic potential and mechanisms of neurotoxicity have not yet been elucidated. Thus, in the present study we evaluated the mechanisms of toxicity of trichlorfom and possible neuroprotective agents in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells treated with the well-established neuropathy inducer mipafox. The following neuroprotective agents were used: amyloride and nimodipine (T and L-type calcium channel blockers, respectively), MDL 28170 (calpain inhibitor (III) and liraglutide (a \"glucagon-like peptide\" - GLP-1 agonist). Mipafox was used as neuropathic OP and paraoxon was used as a non-neuropathic OP. Inhibition and reactivation assays of neurpathy target esterase (NTE) and cytotoxicity showed that only mipafox and trichlorfon showed inhibition and aging of 70% of the NTE in concentrations that presented low toxicity, consistent with development of OPIDN. Activation of calpain was observed only in the treatment with mipafox, an effect inhibited by nimodipine, amyloride and MDL 28170. Triclorfom and mipafox caused significant increase in the levels of intracellular calcium, caspase-3 and significantly inhibiting neurite growth. All three OPs assessed in this work caused a decrease in glucose uptake, which was increased in groups treated whith mipafox plus neuroprotectors. Substances used as possible neuroprotective agents significantly reduced the inhibitory effect of mipafox on neurite outgrowth. The model used in the study proved to be appropriate for characterizing neuropathic OPs, because it allowed a differentiation of the effects of mipafox (neuropathic) and paraoxon (non-neuropathic). The data obtained indicate that trichlorfonm has potential in cause OPIDN. Amiloride, nimodipine, MDL and liraglutide have presented potential neuroprotective effects

The development of new therapeutical approaches, devised to foster the regeneration of neuronal circuits after injury and/or in neurodegenerative diseases, is of great importance. The impairment of dopaminergic projections is especially severe, because these projections are involved in crucial brain functions such as motor control, reward and cognition. In the work presented here, organotypic brain slice co-cultures of (a) the mesostriatal and (b) the mesocortical dopaminergic projection systems consisting of tissue sections of the ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra (VTA/SN), in combination with the target regions of (a) the striatum (STR) or (b) the prefrontal cortex (PFC), respectively, were used to evaluate different approaches to stimulate neurite outgrowth: (i) inhibition of cAMP/cGMP turnover with 3’,5’ cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase inhibitors (PDE-Is), (ii) blockade of calcium currents with nimodipine, and (iii) the co-cultivation with bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (BM-MSCs). The neurite growth-promoting properties of the tested substances and cell populations were analyzed by neurite density quantification in the border region between the two brain slices, using biocytin tracing or tyrosine hydroxylase labeling and automated image processing procedures. In addition, toxicological tests and gene expression analyses were conducted. (i) PDE-Is were applied to VTA/SN+STR rat co-cultures. The quantification of neurite density after both biocytin tracing and tyrosine hydroxylase labeling revealed a growth promoting effect of the PDE2A-Is BAY60-7550 and ND7001. The application of the PDE10-I MP-10 did not alter neurite density in comparison to the vehicle control. (ii) The effects of nimodipine were evaluated in VTA/SN+PFC rat co-cultures. A neurite growth-promoting effect of 0.1 µM and 1 µM nimodipine was demonstrated in a projection system of the CNS. In contrast, the application of 10 µM nimodipine did not alter neurite density, compared to the vehicle control, but induced the activation of the apoptosis marker caspase 3. The expression levels of the investigated genes, including Ca2+ binding proteins (Pvalb, S100b), immediate early genes (Arc, Egr1, Egr2, Egr4, Fos and JunB), glial fibrillary acidic protein, and myelin components (Mal, Mog, Plp1) were not significantly changed (with the exception of Egr4) by the treatment with 0.1 µM and 1 µM nimodipine. (iii) Bulk BM-MSCs that were classically isolated by plastic adhesion were compared to the subpopulation Sca-1+Lin-CD45--derived MSCs (SL45-MSCs). The neurite growth-promoting properties of both MSC populations were quantified in VTA/SN+PFC mouse co-cultures. For this purpose, the MSCs were seeded on glass slides that were placed underneath the co-cultures. A significantly enhanced neurite density within the co-cultures was induced by both bulk BM-MSCs and SL45-MSCs. SL45-MSCs increased neurite density to a higher degree. The characterization of both MSC populations revealed that the frequency of fibroblast colony forming units (CFU-f ) is 105-fold higher in SL45-MSCs. SL45-MSCs were morphologically more homogeneous and expressed higher levels of nestin, BDNF and FGF2 compared to bulk BM-MSCs. Thus, this work emphasizes the vast potential for molecular targeting with respect to the development of therapeutic strategies in the enhancement of neurite regrowth.

The development of new therapeutical approaches, devised to foster the regeneration of neuronal circuits after injury and/or in neurodegenerative diseases, is of great importance. The impairment of dopaminergic projections is especially severe, because these projections are involved in crucial brain functions such as motor control, reward and cognition. In the work presented here, organotypic brain slice co-cultures of (a) the mesostriatal and (b) the mesocortical dopaminergic projection systems consisting of tissue sections of the ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra (VTA/SN), in combination with the target regions of (a) the striatum (STR) or (b) the prefrontal cortex (PFC), respectively, were used to evaluate different approaches to stimulate neurite outgrowth: (i) inhibition of cAMP/cGMP turnover with 3’,5’ cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase inhibitors (PDE-Is), (ii) blockade of calcium currents with nimodipine, and (iii) the co-cultivation with bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (BM-MSCs). The neurite growth-promoting properties of the tested substances and cell populations were analyzed by neurite density quantification in the border region between the two brain slices, using biocytin tracing or tyrosine hydroxylase labeling and automated image processing procedures. In addition, toxicological tests and gene expression analyses were conducted. (i) PDE-Is were applied to VTA/SN+STR rat co-cultures. The quantification of neurite density after both biocytin tracing and tyrosine hydroxylase labeling revealed a growth promoting effect of the PDE2A-Is BAY60-7550 and ND7001. The application of the PDE10-I MP-10 did not alter neurite density in comparison to the vehicle control. (ii) The effects of nimodipine were evaluated in VTA/SN+PFC rat co-cultures. A neurite growth-promoting effect of 0.1 µM and 1 µM nimodipine was demonstrated in a projection system of the CNS. In contrast, the application of 10 µM nimodipine did not alter neurite density, compared to the vehicle control, but induced the activation of the apoptosis marker caspase 3. The expression levels of the investigated genes, including Ca2+ binding proteins (Pvalb, S100b), immediate early genes (Arc, Egr1, Egr2, Egr4, Fos and JunB), glial fibrillary acidic protein, and myelin components (Mal, Mog, Plp1) were not significantly changed (with the exception of Egr4) by the treatment with 0.1 µM and 1 µM nimodipine. (iii) Bulk BM-MSCs that were classically isolated by plastic adhesion were compared to the subpopulation Sca-1+Lin-CD45--derived MSCs (SL45-MSCs). The neurite growth-promoting properties of both MSC populations were quantified in VTA/SN+PFC mouse co-cultures. For this purpose, the MSCs were seeded on glass slides that were placed underneath the co-cultures. A significantly enhanced neurite density within the co-cultures was induced by both bulk BM-MSCs and SL45-MSCs. SL45-MSCs increased neurite density to a higher degree. The characterization of both MSC populations revealed that the frequency of fibroblast colony forming units (CFU-f ) is 105-fold higher in SL45-MSCs. SL45-MSCs were morphologically more homogeneous and expressed higher levels of nestin, BDNF and FGF2 compared to bulk BM-MSCs. Thus, this work emphasizes the vast potential for molecular targeting with respect to the development of therapeutic strategies in the enhancement of neurite regrowth.:Table of contents Abbreviations 1 1. Introduction 2 1.1 The dopaminergic system 2 1.2 Neurite regeneration following mechanical lesions of the CNS 7 1.3 Organotypic brain slice co-cultures 8 1.4 Promising substances and cells to enhance neuroregeneration 10 1.5 The aim of the thesis 14 2. The original research articles 16 2.1 Phosphodiesterase 2 inhibitors promote axonal outgrowth in organotypic slice co-cultures 17 2.2 Nimodipine enhances neurite outgrowth in dopaminergic brain slice co-cultures 35 2.3 Mesenchymal stem cells support neuronal fiber growth in an organotypic brain slice co-culture model 50 3. References 66 Appendices 73 Summary 73 Zusammenfassung 78 Curriculum Vitae 84 Track Record 85 Selbständigkeitserklärung 87 Acknowledgments 88