O presente trabalho tem como objetivo a caracterização do carvão da mina de Leão IIcamada inferior, com a finalidade de gerar carvão pulverizado para a injeção nas ventaneiras do alto-forno na indústria siderúrgica. Esta prática visa diminuir o custo do coque, através do aumento da taxa de substituição do coque por carvões brasileiros de baixo rank. Para o estudo foram realizados ensaios de beneficiamento, análise imediata e elementar, poder calorífico, análise petrográfica e índice de inchamento livre. Na 1ª etapa de ensaios de beneficiamento, usaram-se densidades entre: 1,3-2,4g/cm3, com intervalo de diferença de 0,1 e 0,2 para as densidades de 1,3-1,9 e 2,0-2,4 g/cm3, respectivamente.Verificou-se que a fração de densidade 1,3 g/cm3 apresentou uma menor recuperação (2,0%) e um teor de cinzas de 4,3%. As maiores massas foram obtidas nas densidades de 1,4; 1,5 e 2,4 g/cm3, com recuperação de 11,1%;14,3% e 22,2% e teores de cinzas de 14,9%; 24,3% e 83,4%, respectivamente. Foram escolhidas as frações de densidades 1,4 e 1,5 g/cm3 com maior recuperação na 1ª etapa e com teor de cinzas em torno de 12 a 18%, conforme as curvas lavabilidade. Na 2ª etapa foi flutuado o carvão nas densidades de interesse escolhidas para o PCI e obtiveram-se recuperações mássicas de 13,11% e 27,00%, respectivamente. Assim as recuperações das médias ponderadas corresponderam a 22,46% para os carvões de interesse com alto teor de matéria carbonosa enquanto para as frações indesejadas obteve-se 80,45% em massa. A partir da análise imediata foram obtidos os teores das frações densidades flutuadas de 1,4 e 1,5 g/cm3, obteve-se os seguintes teores: U%- 14,45%; Cz(%bs)-15,22%;MV(bs)-36,04%; MV(bsic)- 42,51%; CF(bs) -50,54% e CF(bsic)- 59,6%. As médias da análise elementar obtida das duas frações foram: enxofre total-0,54%, hidrogênio total-5,44% e carbono total-56.74%, respectivamente. O poder refletor da vitrinita médio foi de 0,46 a 0,48% Ro, sendo classificado como sub-betuminosoB de acordo com a ASTM. O valor do poder calorífico médio foi de 5462 kcal/kg. A fração FL 1,4 é levemente aglutinante com 0,5 de perfil de inchamento, pois concentrou mais vitrinita e perfil zero (0) para fração de FL 1,5g/cm3 e NB, não sendo aglutinante. A partir dos resultados o carvão de leão II apresenta altos voláteis, bom poder calorífico superior; baixo S<1% e teores de cinzas e umidade razoáveis após beneficiamento em densidade de 1,4 a 1,5g/cm3. Assim pode ser usado para PCI, mas há necessidade de se fazer a devida mistura com carvão de médio e/ou alto rank para ajustar algumas propriedades de interesse de acordo com as exigências de cada alto-forno. / The present study concerns itself with the characterization of coal from the mine of Leão II (lower layer), for use in the steel industry with the purpose of generating pulverized coal for injection in the blast furnace. This practice is intended to reduce the cost of coke, by increasing the rate of replacement of Coke by Brazilian low-rank coals. For the study, were carried processing trials, proximate(%) and ultimate(%) analysis, calorific value, petrographic analysis and free swelling index. In the first step of processing tests, it was used density in between densities: 1.3-2, 4 g/cm3, with range of difference of 0.1 and 0.2 to 1.3 densities-1.9 and -2.0 2.4 g/cm3, respectively. It was found that the fraction of 1.3 g/cm3 density showed a minor recovery (2.0%) and an ash content of 4.3%. The biggest masses were obtained in 1.4; 1.5 and 2.4 g/cm3 densities, with 11.1%; 14.3% and 22.2% recovery and 14.9%; 24.3% and 83.4% ash content, respectively. There were chosen the fractional density 1.4 and 1.5 g/cm3 with greater recovery on the first step and with ash content around 12 to 18%, as the washability curves. The second stage was floated coal in densities of interest chosen for PCI and led to mass recalls of 13.11% and 27.00%, respectively. So recoveries of weighted averages corresponded to 22.46% to the coals with high carbon content while the unwanted fraction was 80.45% by mass. From the immediate analysis were obtained the contents of the fractions of floated densities of 1.4 and 1.5 g/cm3, the following levels: U%- 14.45%; as (% bd)- 15.22%; VM (bd)- 36.04%; VM (daf)- 42.51%; FC(bd)- 50.54% and FC (daf)- 59.6%. The averages of the elemental analysis obtained from two fractions were: total sulphur- 0.54%, total hydrogen- 5.44% and total carbon- 56.74%, respectively. The vitrinite reflector medium power was of 0.46 to 0.48% Ro, being classified as Sub-bituminous B in accordance with the ASTM standard. The value of the calorific average was of 5462 kcal/kg. The fraction FL 1.4 is slightly binder with 0.5 swelling profile because it obtained more vitrinite and focused profile of zero (0) for FL1.5 g/cm3 fraction and NB not agglutinative. From the results the Leão II coal has it was obvious presenting high volatile, good upper calorific value; low levels of S<1% and ashes and humidity reasonable after processing in density of 1.4 to 1.5 g/cm3. So it can be used for PCI, but there is need to do proper mixture with medium carbon and/or high rank to set some properties of interest according to the requirements of each blast furnace.

The significance of hydrogen production is increasing as fossil fuels are being depleted and energy security is of increasing importance to the United States. Furthermore, its production offers the potential to alleviate concerns regarding global warming and air pollution. In this thesis we focused on examining the efficiency of hydrogen production from current biomass compared to that from fossil fuel coal. We explored the efficiencies of maximum hydrogen production from biomass and from coal under current technology, namely coal gasification and biomass pyrolysis, together with following-up technologies such as steam reforming (SR). Bio-oil, product from pyrolysis and precursor for steam reforming, is hard to define. We proposed a simulation tool to estimate the pyrolytic bio-oil composition from various biomasses. The results helped us understand the accuracy that is needed for bio-oil composition prediction in the case it is converted to hydrogen. Hydrogen production is energy intensive. Therefore, heat integration is necessary to raise the overall thermodynamic efficiencies for both coal gasification and biomass pyrolysis. The results showed that considering the ultimate energy source, sunlight, about 6-fold more sunlight would be required for the coal to hydrogen than that for biomass to hydrogen. The main difference is in the efficiency of conversion of the ancient biomass to coal and therefore, for modern mankind, this loss has already been incurred.

This is an in-depth analysis of coal fire burning power plants, their effects on human health and the environment. It also employed case study data from Tampa Electric Company’s Big Bend facility to examine environmental infractions at that facility. Tampa Electric Company’s Big Bend Utility Plant, violated the Clean Air Act, which led to a lawsuit filed by the Department of Justice on behalf of the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection in 1997. This case study details the lawsuit, and subsequent settlement as well as Tampa Electric Company’s record of compliance since 2000. This study examines the area surrounding the plant, and impacts the facility may cause local residents and the ecosystem in this part of Florida. Several questions are explored in this case study revolving around environmental justice and environmental racism. Did the actions taken by the Department of Justice in 2000 on behalf of the Environmental Protection Agency and the people of the State of Florida through its Department of Environmental Protection fit the corporate crimes that Tampa Electric were accused of in the lawsuit? Has this company been compliant with state and federal law as required by the settlement? Finally, has the Tampa Electric Company maintained their commitment to provide environmental justice for the communities surrounding the Big Bend Utility Plant or would their actions fit a definition for the crime of corporate environmental violence?

D. Tech. Mechanical Engineering. / Investigates and/or rank the performance of locally available materials (i.e. limestone, dolomite, or calcrete) as sorbents in the capture of SO2 emissions from coal-fired power plants. Two experimental procedures were adopted in this work: the pH-stat method was used to simulate conditions encountered in wet flue gas desulphurisation (WFGD); and the fixed-bed reactor was used to simulate conditions encountered in the dry in-duct flue gas desulphurisation (DFGD) process. It is important to note that most studies of using calcium-based materials as sorbents for SO2 removal have been carried out in overseas countries. These studies were carried out using materials and research conditions prevailing in the particular countries. Furthermore, all South African coal-fired power stations burn low grade coal allowing the high grade coal to be exported. As a result, coal-fired power stations in South Africa emit higher emissions than the overseas power stations which are operated on high grade coals. Thus the results achieved internationally may not be directly translated to the South African conditions.

This study explores the potential extension of occupational health and safety to informal small scale miners in South Africa. It was motivated by an understanding of the integral but much neglected relationship between the quality of work and the goals of poverty reduction and economic development. The study recognises that poor working conditions can reduce productivity and that work-related injury or illness is an unaffordable risk for those working without access to adequate social protection. Further, the protection of labour standards, including work health and safety, is an established basic right in those countries where relevant LLO Conventions have been ratified. Conventional occupational health and safety (OHS) regulation operates through formal employment structures and therefore offers limited or no protection to informal workers. In a country where increasing policy attention is being paid at national and local level to the employment and economic growth potential of the informal economy, this study practically explores within one sector - mining - how the institutional positions of both conventional and identified non-conventional OHS stakeholders work to constrain, or provide opportunities for, the extension of health and safety protection to those working informally. The focus on one kaolin and one clay/coal informal small scale mine site within KwaZulu-Natal and the use of in-depth interviews with workers and a range of identified stakeholders enabled a structured qualitative investigation into the health and safety challenges faced by informal miners; the nature of the support provided to small scale mining by the Department of Minerals and Energy (DME); and the institutional processes acting through national, provincial and local structures that do or could influence workers' access to OHS. The threats presented by each mine to worker and public, as well as environmental health and safety were found to be numerous and severe. There was also evidence of a negative impact of poor working conditions on both the health and economic security of the workers. Despite this, the study identified a vacuum of accountability for the labour protection of informal miners. Conventional mining OHS mechanisms are vertically driven, resource intensive and technocratic. They are both inappropriate for and inflexible towards meeting the challenges presented by informal work. In a minority of cases interdependent links between the responsibil ities of non-conventional OHS stakeholders and work health and safety are understood, but the lack of a worker focus, the institutional boundaries within which people work, their limited OHS knowledge, and the major financial and human resource constraints they face, appear to present significant barriers to any actual OHS intervention. Through the research process it became clear that the management and nature of the DME's small scale mining support strategy itself present fundamental barriers to the extension of OHS. The strategy is a product of a narrow conceptual isation of what is needed to achieve formalisation. This, and the lack of genuine worker representation and accountability within it, means that not only does the strategy fail to attend to OHS and a variety of other worker needs, but that the DME continues unchallenged in its neglect of such issues. With an understanding of the real constraints faced by both workers and the range of identified OHS stakeholders, and in view of the future plans to overhaul the existing national OHS framework in South Africa, the study concludes by outlining some practical opportunities and recommendations that could help to break down existing barriers to the OHS protection of informal workers. Conventional OHS mechanisms could be reoriented to take advantage of cheaper, simpler and more appropriate workerled approaches which could potentially achieve substantial improvements for large numbers of informal workers. Realistic opportunities also exist to more firmly secure the participation of promising non-conventional OHS stakeholders including, in this case, formal mining companies and local government. Finally, there are ways to bridge existing deep divides between social and economic institutional responsibilities that currently serve to obscure potential resource sharing and multiplier impact opportunities of working more collaboratively to improve OHS for the benefit of informal workers. / Thesis (M.Dev. Studies)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2006.

This thesis presents an engineering geological and geotechnical investigation of the proposed Terrace Opencast Coalmine highwall in the Reddale Valley, Reefton. The proposed pit will target the 4-11m thick No. 4 Seam coal, which exists on the Valley floor beneath outwash gravels and Brunner Coal Measures (BCM) overburden dipping at 15-30° to the northwest. Rock coatings are providing friable sandstone units with protection from weathering in existing cut faces and may contribute to short term pit wall stability. The BCM core was divided into four geotechnical units for rock material testing purposes: unit 1 siltstone, unit 2 carbonaceous mudstone, unit 3 interbedded sandstone and carbonaceous mudstone and unit 4 loose sandstone. The average results for units 1-3 gave classifications within the medium to high porosity (9-13%) and dry density (2250-2470kg/m³) ranges, and medium to medium high slake-durability Id2 values (72-94% retained). Unit 4 (loose sandstone) recorded very low dry density (1694 kg/m³) and slake-durability Id2 (9%) average values. Strength testing confirmed that the units can be classed as weak rocks, with average UCS values of 12.8-13.7MPa for units 1-3, and for all four units Is(50) from point load testing of 0.26-0.62MPa with low cohesion values (0-6.2MPa) from triaxial testing. Friction angles from triaxial tests gave high values of 32-45°, while direct shear tests established 15° internal friction for bedding planes in carbonaceous mudstone and 37° for a high angle defect in interbedded sandstone/carbonaceous mudstone. The average Young's modulus values ranged from 0.82 to 10GPa, and Poisson's ratio between 0.39 and 0.50. Eight scanline defect surveys established that the major discontinuities in existing cut faces consist of high angle tension joints, shallow dipping bedding, and faults related to regional uplift. The defect orientations from the scanlines located in the southwest were significantly different from those in the northeast, and may be due to the faults that cross the Valley. In general the majority of defects displayed low persistence (less than 3m), were clean and tight, and had low joint roughness coefficients (JRC less than 6). Joint wall compressive strengths gave an average of 32MPa, but were affected by case-hardening on weathered faces. The results from the 8 drill holes analysed show that 37% of core was within the excellent rock quality designation class (RQD = 90-100%), while 29% was in the very poor quality rock (RQD = 0-25%). A semi-confined aquifer in the outwash gravels that will drain into the proposed pit was found to have a transmissivity of 58m²/day and hydraulic conductivity of 3.1 x 10⁻⁵ m/s. Kinematic feasibility assessment determined an optimum highwall orientation of 65° dip to 120° (dip direction), which is within at least 20° of the coal seam strike. The likelihood of planar, wedge or toppling failure depends on whether the structural conditions are similar to those encountered in the southwest or northeast scanlines, as well as the persistence of the defects present. The occurrence of small scale (less than 1m offset) 'step-up' normal faults, and the three larger faults that cross the valley, all of which are related to regional uplift, will also affect which failure mode will be kinematically feasible. Other crucial slope stability considerations include groundwater inflow from the saturated overburden and bedding parallel failures on the footwall dip slope of the pit. An investigation into case hardening on existing cut faces identified three interconnected rock coatings: iron films, lithobiontic (biological) and clay-dominated crusts. Jarosite was found at sites with abundant pyrite and the oxidation of iron may have been aided by microbial activity. A green algae inhabiting pore spaces approximately 1mm below the surface was noted beneath an iron film and it is suggested to be similar to that found in arid environments. Although lithobiontic and clay-dominated crusts did not provide the weathered surface with any additional strength, they were observed to form relatively quickly (from months to less than 5 years) and will aid short term stability by providing the batters with protection from weathering processes. This project concluded that the overburden material in the proposed highwall can be expected to behave like weak rock and in some cases (such as the loose sandstone) can be expected to have soil characteristics. Highwall stability is more likely to be affected by substantial inflows of groundwater than highly persistent joint sets. Establishment of the highwalls in their final position in the early mining stages will enable development of rock coatings that are expected to aid short and long term stability.

The thesis describes the social and political effects of the transformation of the Dukeries district of Nottinghamshire, where seven new coal mines were sunk between 1918 and 1928. The coal companies responsible for developing the Dukeries field constructed new colliery villages 'at the pit gates' as part of their investment. The thesis deals with the history and characteristics of these townships, planned, built and owned by a single authority. Like other new communities, they suffered 'teething troubles'. It proved difficult to engender a unified community spirit as miners and their families migrated from older coalfields throughout Britain during the early years of high labour turnover. Relationships were strained between the miners and the existing residents of the Dukeries, although the aristocrats whose landed estates gave the district its name came reluctantly to favour mining because of the royalties they obtained therefrom. The first years of the new coinmuniti j:.es were beset by difficulties affecting the provision of facilities for education, religion, shopping, female employment and leisure. But the thesis does not just analyse the problems accompanying industrialisation. The power of the employers in the communities they had created produced much characteristic of company towns. Political representation and control was retained by the colliery companies and the old leaders of Dukeries society, while the Labour Party was not founded until the 194Os. The 'non-political' Spencer Union, a Nottinghamshire phenomenon, monopolised trade unionism in the new pits. Minor regulations were enforced in the villages by uniformed company policemen. As 'benevolent paternalists', the companies sponsored stores, sport, recreation and even religion. The notion of the orderly 'model' village was encouraged as a means of disciplining the workforce. The predominant characteristics of the colliery villages did not disappear until the 194Os, when the war followed by nationalisation destroyed the power of the private owners.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2000. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains xii, 156 p. : maps (some col.) Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 151-156).

This thesis investigates to what extent coal prices differed globally during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and whether those differences mattered for economic development. The backbone of my empirical investigation is a new dataset of annual coal prices spanning the years 1840 to 1960 for, on average, over 30 globally distributed ports. This dataset is complemented by pithead prices for all major coal-producing countries. My analysis includes all major steam coals and I eliminate quality differences by accounting for differences in their carbon content. I construct my argument by examining two major drivers of differences in coal prices. First, I examine trade costs for Welsh steam coals, which were shipped to most regions of the world. Secondly, I estimate the effect of the spread of coal mining, for example to India, on local coal prices by initating competition between coals from different origins. While trade costs declined most during the late nineteenth century, the spread of coal mining led to continued price convergence in the interwar period. And yet, global coal price differences remained significant, especially between producing and importing countries. Arguably, my most interesting finding is on the effect of those coal price differences. More specifically, I calculate the ratio of coal prices to wages, and explore whether countries where this ratio was closer to the British ratio were in the best position to use the most advanced steam technology. My econometric results indeed show that countries with a low coal price/wage ratio experienced higher manufacturing output growth during the period 1870 to 1940. This finding of my thesis highlights one potential way in which different levels of coal prices may have contributed to varying degrees of technology adoption between countries and ultimately economic growth.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo a caracterização do carvão da mina de Leão IIcamada inferior, com a finalidade de gerar carvão pulverizado para a injeção nas ventaneiras do alto-forno na indústria siderúrgica. Esta prática visa diminuir o custo do coque, através do aumento da taxa de substituição do coque por carvões brasileiros de baixo rank. Para o estudo foram realizados ensaios de beneficiamento, análise imediata e elementar, poder calorífico, análise petrográfica e índice de inchamento livre. Na 1ª etapa de ensaios de beneficiamento, usaram-se densidades entre: 1,3-2,4g/cm3, com intervalo de diferença de 0,1 e 0,2 para as densidades de 1,3-1,9 e 2,0-2,4 g/cm3, respectivamente.Verificou-se que a fração de densidade 1,3 g/cm3 apresentou uma menor recuperação (2,0%) e um teor de cinzas de 4,3%. As maiores massas foram obtidas nas densidades de 1,4; 1,5 e 2,4 g/cm3, com recuperação de 11,1%;14,3% e 22,2% e teores de cinzas de 14,9%; 24,3% e 83,4%, respectivamente. Foram escolhidas as frações de densidades 1,4 e 1,5 g/cm3 com maior recuperação na 1ª etapa e com teor de cinzas em torno de 12 a 18%, conforme as curvas lavabilidade. Na 2ª etapa foi flutuado o carvão nas densidades de interesse escolhidas para o PCI e obtiveram-se recuperações mássicas de 13,11% e 27,00%, respectivamente. Assim as recuperações das médias ponderadas corresponderam a 22,46% para os carvões de interesse com alto teor de matéria carbonosa enquanto para as frações indesejadas obteve-se 80,45% em massa. A partir da análise imediata foram obtidos os teores das frações densidades flutuadas de 1,4 e 1,5 g/cm3, obteve-se os seguintes teores: U%- 14,45%; Cz(%bs)-15,22%;MV(bs)-36,04%; MV(bsic)- 42,51%; CF(bs) -50,54% e CF(bsic)- 59,6%. As médias da análise elementar obtida das duas frações foram: enxofre total-0,54%, hidrogênio total-5,44% e carbono total-56.74%, respectivamente. O poder refletor da vitrinita médio foi de 0,46 a 0,48% Ro, sendo classificado como sub-betuminosoB de acordo com a ASTM. O valor do poder calorífico médio foi de 5462 kcal/kg. A fração FL 1,4 é levemente aglutinante com 0,5 de perfil de inchamento, pois concentrou mais vitrinita e perfil zero (0) para fração de FL 1,5g/cm3 e NB, não sendo aglutinante. A partir dos resultados o carvão de leão II apresenta altos voláteis, bom poder calorífico superior; baixo S<1% e teores de cinzas e umidade razoáveis após beneficiamento em densidade de 1,4 a 1,5g/cm3. Assim pode ser usado para PCI, mas há necessidade de se fazer a devida mistura com carvão de médio e/ou alto rank para ajustar algumas propriedades de interesse de acordo com as exigências de cada alto-forno. / The present study concerns itself with the characterization of coal from the mine of Leão II (lower layer), for use in the steel industry with the purpose of generating pulverized coal for injection in the blast furnace. This practice is intended to reduce the cost of coke, by increasing the rate of replacement of Coke by Brazilian low-rank coals. For the study, were carried processing trials, proximate(%) and ultimate(%) analysis, calorific value, petrographic analysis and free swelling index. In the first step of processing tests, it was used density in between densities: 1.3-2, 4 g/cm3, with range of difference of 0.1 and 0.2 to 1.3 densities-1.9 and -2.0 2.4 g/cm3, respectively. It was found that the fraction of 1.3 g/cm3 density showed a minor recovery (2.0%) and an ash content of 4.3%. The biggest masses were obtained in 1.4; 1.5 and 2.4 g/cm3 densities, with 11.1%; 14.3% and 22.2% recovery and 14.9%; 24.3% and 83.4% ash content, respectively. There were chosen the fractional density 1.4 and 1.5 g/cm3 with greater recovery on the first step and with ash content around 12 to 18%, as the washability curves. The second stage was floated coal in densities of interest chosen for PCI and led to mass recalls of 13.11% and 27.00%, respectively. So recoveries of weighted averages corresponded to 22.46% to the coals with high carbon content while the unwanted fraction was 80.45% by mass. From the immediate analysis were obtained the contents of the fractions of floated densities of 1.4 and 1.5 g/cm3, the following levels: U%- 14.45%; as (% bd)- 15.22%; VM (bd)- 36.04%; VM (daf)- 42.51%; FC(bd)- 50.54% and FC (daf)- 59.6%. The averages of the elemental analysis obtained from two fractions were: total sulphur- 0.54%, total hydrogen- 5.44% and total carbon- 56.74%, respectively. The vitrinite reflector medium power was of 0.46 to 0.48% Ro, being classified as Sub-bituminous B in accordance with the ASTM standard. The value of the calorific average was of 5462 kcal/kg. The fraction FL 1.4 is slightly binder with 0.5 swelling profile because it obtained more vitrinite and focused profile of zero (0) for FL1.5 g/cm3 fraction and NB not agglutinative. From the results the Leão II coal has it was obvious presenting high volatile, good upper calorific value; low levels of S<1% and ashes and humidity reasonable after processing in density of 1.4 to 1.5 g/cm3. So it can be used for PCI, but there is need to do proper mixture with medium carbon and/or high rank to set some properties of interest according to the requirements of each blast furnace.