This is a study taking an information theoretic approach toward quantum contextuality. The approach is that of using the memory complexity of finite-state machines to quantify quantum contextuality. These machines simulate the outcome behaviour of sequential measurements on systems of quantum bits as predicted by quantum mechanics. Of interest is the question of whether or not classical representations by finite-state machines are able to effectively represent the state-independent contextual outcome behaviour. Here we consider spatial efficiency, rather than temporal efficiency as considered by D. Gottesman (1999), for the particular measurement dynamics in systems of quantum bits. Extensions of cases found in the adjacent study of Kleinmann et al. (2010) are established by which upper bounds on memory complexity for particular scenarios are found. Furthermore, an optimal machine structure for simulating any n-partite system of quantum bits is found, by which a lower bound for the memory complexity is found for each n in the natural numbers. Within this finite-state machine approach questions of foundational concerns on quantum mechanics were sought to be addressed. Alas, nothing of novel thought on such concerns is here reported on.

Quantum foundations is a field of diverse goals and methods. In this thesis, I will present three different approaches to quantum foundations, each emphasizing a different goal or perspective. The causaloid framework has the goal is to use insight from quantum foundations to study quantum gravity. Ontic models are a tool used to study realist theories of quantum mechanics from an operational quantum information perspective. Nelson's mechanics is a derivation of the Schrodinger equation using the machinery of stochastic mechanics. As each of these approaches has different set of goals, they are suited to different purposes and have different limitations. From the causaloid, I construct the concept of causally unbiased entropy and at the same time, find an emergent idea of causality in the form of a measure of causal connectedness, termed the Q factor. In the ontic models framework, I reproduce the generalization of the concept of contextuality. For Nelson's mechanics, I examine its relationship to Bohmian mechanics - a realist formulation of quantum mechanics. I will then examine the relationship of these different approaches to one another. From this examination I will introduce the concept of physical contextuality in order to ask whether contextuality could be more than just a mathematical artifact. I also include a discussion of the property of deficiency in ontic models and its relation to contextuality given certain constraints.

Quantum foundations is a field of diverse goals and methods. In this thesis, I will present three different approaches to quantum foundations, each emphasizing a different goal or perspective. The causaloid framework has the goal is to use insight from quantum foundations to study quantum gravity. Ontic models are a tool used to study realist theories of quantum mechanics from an operational quantum information perspective. Nelson's mechanics is a derivation of the Schrodinger equation using the machinery of stochastic mechanics. As each of these approaches has different set of goals, they are suited to different purposes and have different limitations. From the causaloid, I construct the concept of causally unbiased entropy and at the same time, find an emergent idea of causality in the form of a measure of causal connectedness, termed the Q factor. In the ontic models framework, I reproduce the generalization of the concept of contextuality. For Nelson's mechanics, I examine its relationship to Bohmian mechanics - a realist formulation of quantum mechanics. I will then examine the relationship of these different approaches to one another. From this examination I will introduce the concept of physical contextuality in order to ask whether contextuality could be more than just a mathematical artifact. I also include a discussion of the property of deficiency in ontic models and its relation to contextuality given certain constraints.

This thesis aims to explore how human rights practitioners interpret human rights (as either universal or contextual), and if their interpretation influence the way in which human rights are implemented in development assistance. In order to answer this question, I have conducted field studies in Stockholm, Sweden and Kampala, Uganda. By viewing the outcomes of these field studies through a theoretical lens concerning the universality or contextuality of human rights, the study intends to cast light on human rights practitioners’ own personal notions of human rights and what implications these views have for development assistance.   The study shows that all of the respondents in the case studies share a common view concerning the universality of human rights, and that the rights articulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) are indeed universal and should be shared by all people everywhere. That being said, the result also demonstrate that there is a common notion among the respondents from Kampala that this universality does not exists in the practical implementation of human rights in development assistance. Furthermore, the results show that all respondents see that clear prioritizations are made in terms of which rights are focused on in the field of development assistance specifically. The respondents perceive these prioritizations to be set on the basis of the political agenda of the international community and major donors. Which priorities end up at the top of the agenda depends on any number of cultural, historical, ideological and economic factors that differ from situation to situation.   In light of these findings, I argue in this study that there exist weaknesses in the universal approach to human rights that are claimed by Jack Donnelly and the donor community when it comes to practical implementation in development assistance. The results of this study show that the universality of human rights is threatened by uneven power dynamics that exist between donors and partner countries. This has implications for the ability of both practitioners in the field of human rights and donors to instill confidence in a local context. Therefore, this thesis suggests that there is a need for a re-examination of how this universality is approached from the international community and the donors when it comes to the practical implementation in development assistance in order for the common goal to be fulfilled.

The research subject covers expression of Contextualism ideas and contextuality attributes in the planning of Vilnius city from 1790 to 1990. The main objective of the present paper is to define the expression attributes of the contextuality aspect in the development areas of Vilnius city from 1790 to 1990 as well as to identify the preservation and elaboration methods thereof. To achieve the objective of the research, the following tasks shall be carried out: analysis of the conception of urban, sociocultural and conceptual Contextualism and attributes of contextuality; definition of urban contextuality expression in the areas of Vilnius city developed from 1790 to 1990; identification of the change of urban contextuality attributes in soviet residential districts of Vilnius in the 21st century; highlighting of ways for stimulating sociocultural and conceptual contextuality in further modernisation of the soviet residential districts of Vilnius. The paper consists of an introduction, three sections, conclusions, a list of the references used and a list of author’s publications on the subject of the dissertation. The conception of Contextualism in the architectural theory, the definitions of models of urban, sociocultural, conceptual Contextualism and the attributes of contextuality are analysed in the first chapter. The display of the features of contextuality in the surrounding areas designed in 19–20th century are studied in the second chapter. The third chapter is... [to full text] / Disertacinio darbo tyrimo objektas – tai kontekstualizmo idėjų ir kontekstualumo požymių raiška 1790–1990 m. Vilniaus miesto planavimo koncepcijose ir suformuotose miesto dalyse. Darbo tikslas – nustatyti Vilniaus miesto dalių, suformuotų 1790–1990 m., kontekstualumo požymius, jų išsaugojimo bei plėtojimo XXI a. būdus. Darbo tikslui pasiekti darbe sprendžiami šie uždaviniai: išnagrinėti urbanistinio, sociokultūrinio ir konceptualiojo kontekstualizmo samprata ir kontekstualumo požymius; nustatyti urbanistinio kontekstualumo požymių raiška Vilniaus miesto dalyse, suformuotose 1790–1990 m.; nustatyti urbanistinio kontekstualumo požymiu kaita Vilniaus sovietmečio gyvenamuosiuose rajonuose XXI a.; identifikuoti sociokultūrinio kontekstualumo katalizatorių taikymo galimybes modernizuojant Vilniaus sovietmečio gyvenamuosius rajonus. Disertacija sudaro įvadas, trys skyriai, skyrių apibendrinimai, bendrosios išvados, naudotos literatūros ir autorės publikacijų disertacijos tema sąrašai. Pirmajame skyriuje aptariama kontekstualizmo samprata ir apibrėžiami urbanistinio, sociokultūrinio ir konceptualiojo kontekstualizmo modeliai, kontekstualumo požymiai. Antrajame skyriuje nagrinėjama urbanistinio kontekstualumo požymių raiška XIX–XX a. suformuotose Vilniaus dalyse. Trečiajame skyriuje tiriama sovietmečio gyvenamųjų rajonų urbanistinių ir architektūrinių pokyčių po 1990 m. problema, analizuojamos sociokultūrinio ir konceptualiojo kontekstualumo modeliu pritaikymo galimybės.

Abstract The aim of this research was to describe leading in the basic education in its context. In this study, the following items regarding the leaders of the basic education are described: conceptions of the current situation, leadership in the basic education and changes in work as a part of the operational environment. According to the contextual model, leadership in the basic education is societal as well as interactive and social interpersonal action extending from micro to macro level. The theoretical and methodological frames of this study have been constructed in a process. The theoretical frame has developed during the research process and thus affected the methodology – despite certain preconceptions and understanding which the researcher has had of the phenomenon. In this study, a survey questionnaire was used to gather empirical data. The survey research was made in 2002, and 141 leaders of the basic education returned the questionnaire. The response rate was 74%. The data from the thematic interviews were used to supplement and deepen the research data gathered by questionnaires. The themes of the interviews were formed according to the items the researcher wanted to specify or deepen in the data gathered from the questionnaires. According to the research results, external reasons to apply for a leadership in the basic education are highly important, and that prior leadership training has not been given for the role. 49% of the leaders participating in this study have not sought a leadership role nor received any kind of training before beginning as a leader. The results show that the community contexts are very dissimilar and changing. The schools of these leaders had 9–608 pupils. The number of teachers in the schools varied from 1 to 51. This shows how different the duties of a leader in the basic education can be. Also the social situation of the basic education is changing. Schools are closed and replaced by large school units, which carry out the principle of integrated basic education. The results show that the decisions made on the local level affect the leading in the basic education most. The leaders were of the opinion that in their leading, managing things is emphasized (70% of working time); at the time of the survey only one third of the time was estimated to be spent on leading people. The leaders of the basic education thought that their work is comprehensive and it includes co-operation regarding the managing of practicalities. The work was considered to be demanding and future-oriented. However, the work of the basic education leaders has contradictory elements due to the development demands set by work organization and local level. There is a threat that the contradictions between the practice and the general demands of leading become more common when organizations' power of decision increase. In this study, also the transition to the new transmodern era is examined from the point of leading on the grounds of the research literature. In the schools transmodernism would emphasize activities based on experiment and experience. Trusting in progress, development and future is central in the leadership. Transmodern leadership means leading with human dignity. In the schoolwork this means that school hierarchy can be reduced by creating more co-operation and teamwork. Transmodernism emphasizes subjectivity and one's own critical thinking in relation to change. / Tiivistelmä Tutkimuksen tehtävänä oli kuvata peruskoulun johtamista kontekstissaan. Tutkimuksessa kuvataan peruskoulun johtajien käsityksiä vallitsevasta tilanteesta, peruskoulun johtamisesta sekä työhön liittyneistä muutoksista osana toimintaympäristöä. Peruskoulun johtaminen kontekstuaalisen mallin mukaan on mikrotasolta makrotasolle ulottuvaa yhteiskunnallista ja ihmisten välistä vuorovaikutuksellista toimintaa. Tutkimuksen teoreettinen rakenne ja siihen liittyvät metodologiset valinnat ovat muodostuneet prosessinomaisesti. Teorian osuus on tarkentunut tutkimuksen kuluessa ja sitä kautta vaikuttanut metodologian tarkasteluun huolimatta tietynlaisesta ennakkonäkemyksestä ja ymmärryksestä, mikä tutkijalla on ollut tutkittavasta ilmiöstä. Kokemusperäistä materiaalia tässä tutkimuksessa saatiin survey-kyselyllä. Vuonna 2002 suoritettuun kyselyyn vastasi 141 peruskoulun johtajaa ja palautusprosentiksi muodostui 74 %. Teemahaastattelulla täydennettiin ja syvennettiin kyselyllä saatua aineistoa. Teemahaastattelun aihepiirit muotoutuivat sen perusteella, mihin asioihin haluttiin tarkennusta ja syventämistä kyselystä saadun aineiston pohjalta. Tulokset osoittavat, että ulkopuoliset peruskoulun johtajaksi hakeutumisen syyt ovat varsin tärkeät eikä ennakoivaa koulutusta johtamistyöhön ole saatu. Tutkituista johtajista 49 % ei ole tähän työhön hakeutunut eikä ole saanut siihen koulutusta ennen työn aloittamista. Toimintaympäristö on tulosten mukaan hyvin erilainen ja muuttuva. Johdettavissa kouluissa oli 9–608 oppilasta ja koulujen opettajamäärät vaihtelivat 1–51 opettajan välillä. Tämä on osoitus peruskoulun johtajan työn erilaisuudesta. Peruskoulutuksen yhteiskunnallinen tilanne on myös muuttumassa. Kouluja lakkautetaan ja tilalle tulee suuria yksiköitä, jotka toteuttavat yhtenäisen perusopetuksen periaatetta. Tulosten perusteella peruskoulun johtamiseen vaikuttavat eniten paikallistasolla tehtävät päätökset. Johtajat olivat sitä mieltä, että johtamisessaan painottuu asioiden johtaminen (70 %) kun ihmisten johtamiseen kului kolmasosa ajasta kyselyn suorittamishetkellä. Peruskoulun johtajien mielestä heidän työnsä on kokonaisvaltaista ja käytännön asioiden hoitamiseen liittyvää yhteistyötä. Se koettiin haasteelliseksi ja tulevaisuuteen suuntautuneeksi työksi. Peruskoulun johtajan työ on kuitenkin ristiriitaista sekä työorganisaation että paikallistason kehitysvaatimusten vuoksi. Ristiriidat johtamisen yleisten vaatimusten ja käytännön suhteen ovat vaarassa kasvaa organisaatioiden päätösvallan kasvaessa. Työssä tarkastellaan tutkimuskirjallisuuden perusteella myös siirtymistä uuteen transmoderniin aikaan johtamisen näkökulmasta. Koulussa transmodernismi ilmenisi kokemuksellisena ja elämyksellisenä toimintana. Johtamisessa keskeistä on luottaminen edistykseen, kehitykseen ja tulevaisuuteen. Transmoderni johtaminen on ihmisarvoista ihmisten johtamista. Koulutyössä tämä tarkoittaa sitä, että yhteistyön ja tiimityön lisääntyminen vähentää hierarkkisuutta. Transmoderni johtaminen korostaa subjektiivisuutta ja omaa kriittistä ajattelua suhteessa muutokseen.

<div>The Contextuality-by-Default theory describes the contextual effects on random variables: how the identity of random variables changes from one context to another. Direct influences and true contextuality constitute different types of effects of contexts upon sets of random variables. Changes in the distributions of random variables across contexts define direct influences. True contextuality is defined by the impossibility of sewing all the variables of a system of random variables into a particular overall joint distribution. In the absence of direct influences, the theory specializes to the theory of selective influences in psychology and the traditional treatment of contextuality in quantum mechanics. Consistently connected (i.e., with no direct influences) noncontextual systems are the systems with selective influences. However, observable systems of human behavior are seldom consistently connected. Contextuality-by-Default allows one to classify and measure the degree of deviation from or adherence to the pattern of selective influences, both for consistently and inconsistently connected systems.</div><div><br></div><div><div>The papers here included follow the development of the Contextuality-by-Default theory. The theory is presented for cyclic systems of binary random variables, for arbitrary systems of binary random variables, and for systems that include categorical random variables. Although contextuality has been searched for in human behavior since at least the 1990s, I report here the first experiments that have demonstrated contextuality in choice behavior without making the mistake of ignoring the direct influences present in the systems of random variables. A psychophysical experiment was conducted and then analyzed using the theory for systems of binary random variables. Its results showed no contextuality in a double-detection paradigm, that is, in an experiment in which each participant was asked to make dual conjoint judgments of signal detection for two stimuli at a time. Several crowdsourcing experiments were</div><div>conducted and analyzed using the theory for cyclic systems of binary random variables. These experiments demonstrate contextuality using a between-subjects experimental design. Among them, the Snow Queen experiment, in which each participant made two conjoint choices in accordance with a simple story line, provided a methodological template (used afterward to design the other crowdsourcing experiments) for</div><div>systematically exploring contextuality. Lastly, another psychophysical experiment was conducted and then analyzed using the theory for systems with categorical random variables. This one is the first experiment that demonstrates contextuality in a within-subject design.</div></div><div><br></div><div><div>In addition to the experimental work reported in these papers, I also present the development of the Contextuality-by-Default theory from the theory for cyclic systems to the theory for systems with categorical random variables. The nominal dominance theorem, which states a necessary condition for noncontextuality of systems where all dichotomizations of categorical variables are considered, is the most relevant theoretical result of this development. The role that the notion of contextuality can play in psychology is difficult to fully understand at our present stage of knowledge. Most obviously, contextuality analysis is a generalization of the traditional psychological problem of selective influences. It is, in fact, the only existing theoretical tool for classifying and quantifying patterns of deviations from the hypothesis of selective influences. It is less evident whether the degree of (non)contextuality correlates with specific aspects of behavior that may be of interest. Although some such correlations seem to suggest themselves, to be certain and precise in identifying them, we need to expand our knowledge of the degree of (non)contextuality to a broader class of behavioral systems.</div></div>

Structures that demonstrate nonclassicality are of foundational interest in quantum mechanics, and can also be seen as resources for numerous applications in quantum information processing - particularly in the Hilbert space of N qubits. The theory of entanglement, quantum contextuality, and quantum nonlocality within the N-qubit Pauli group is further developed in this thesis. The Strong Kochen-Specker theorem and the structures that prove it are introduced and explored in detail. The pattern of connections between structures that show entanglement, contextuality, and nonlocality is explained. Computational search algorithms and related tools were developed and used to perform complete searches for minimal nonclassical structures within the N-qubit Pauli group up to values of N limited by our computational resources. Our results are surveyed and prescriptions are given for using the elementary nonclassical structures we have found to construct more complex types of such structures. Families of nonclassical structures are presented for all values of N, including the most compact family of projector-based parity proofs of the Kochen-Specker theorem yet discovered in all dimensions of the form 2N, where N>=2. The applications of our results and their connection with other work is also discussed.

Despite a general recognition of the importance of complex systems, there is a dearth of general models capable of describing their dynamics. This is attributed to a complexity scale; the models are attempting to describe systems at different parts of the scale and are hence not compatible. We require new models capable of describing complex behaviour at different points of the complexity scale. This work identifies, and proceeds to examine systems at the high end of the complexity scale, those which have not to date been well understood by our current modelling methodology. It is shown that many such models exhibit what might be termed contextual dependency, and that it is precisely this feature which is not well understood by our current modelling methodology. A particular problem is discussed; our apparent inability to generate systems which display high end complexity, exhibited by for example the general failure of strong ALife. A new model, Process Physics, that has been developed at Flinders University is discussed, and arguments are presented that it exhibits high end complexity. The features of this model that lead to its displaying such behaviour are discussed, and the generalisation of this model to a broader range of complex systems is attempted.

Public programming is a distinct component of archival professional practice, although it has not always been so. Academic public programming is an even relatively newer phenomenon, but is gaining momentum as university and college archives seek to align themselves with an emerging engagement-based instructional paradigm that now widely informs academia. Postmodern insights have challenged archivists to reconsider the traditional view of records as static objects, frozen in perpetuity, and instead understand them as part of a never ending dynamic process encompassing multiple narratives and meanings. Academic archives in particular have begun exploring ways in which they might engage students in a new learning environment - through a new type of public programming that emphasizes the archivists’ unique role in knowledge creation. Academic archivists have a unique opportunity to insert archives into the curriculum and facilitate student engagement and inquiry, while supporting the academic mission of their parent institution. This thesis will explore ways to insert university archives more fully into the teaching function of the university. The thesis will conceptualize how university archives could be included in an interdisciplinary program offered by such archives, or in conjunction with other departments and faculties, that is designed to enhance student learning through the development of critical thinking skills and knowledge creation.