The physical processes shaping laser plasma dynamics take place on length scales ranging from the microscopic (1 ångström) to the macroscopic realms (µm). Microscopic field fluctuations due to the motions of individual plasma charges evolve on an atomic scale. Collisional effects influencing thermalization and ionization processes depend on the plasma fields on an atomic level. Simultaneously, collective processes such as plasma oscillations take place on a mesoscopic length scale of many-nm. The macroscopic realm is ultimately determined by the laser which typically spans hundreds of nm to a few µm. Consequently, ab-initio modelling of laser plasma dynamics requires the resolution of length scales from 1Å to multiple µm. As such, in order to bridge the microscopic and macroscopic length scales of light-matter interaction, in is necessary to account for the individual motions of up to ~10^11 particles. This is a not an insignificant undertaking. Until recently, approaches to numerical modelling of light-matter interactions were limited to MD and PIC, each with their own limitations. MicPIC has been developed to fill the gap left by MD and PIC but so far has not been adapted for scalable parallel processing on large distributed memory machines. Thus, its full potential was not able to be fully realized until now. This thesis presents the massively parallel MicPIC method capable of bridging the micro- and macroscopic realms. A wide range of applications that have heretofore not been accessible to theory or, at best, had limited applicability are now open for thorough investigation. Among these are nonlinear nanophotonics, quantum nanophotonics, laser machining, ab-initio dynamics of strongly coupled plasmas, high-harmonic generation, electron and x-ray sources, and optical switching. Two of the first applications of parallel MicPIC to a selection of such problems are shown and discussed below, demonstrating the applicability of the method to a wide variety of newly accessible strong field laser-plasma physics phenomena.

Fiber optical parametric amplifiers (OPAs) are based on a highly-efficient four-wave mixing process. Their capability to give very high gain and large bandwidths have made them an attractive candidate for providing higher bandwidths for future telecommunication systems, such as wavelength-division multiplexed (WDM) photonics networks. In dynamic photonic networks a where number of channels are dropped and/or added all the time, the OPA gain for the other channels is affected. In this thesis we employed a well-known gain control technique, all-optical gain clamping (AOGC), and reduced the gain variation of fiber OPAs below 0.5 dB, under varying input conditions. We also showed an improvement in power penalties o at the bit-error rate of 10-8, from 2.5 dB to 0.5 dB for on/off keying modulation. We also investigated fiber optical parametric oscillators (OPOs). Using fiber OPAs as gain medium we realized two different continuous-wave (CW) OPOs, centred at 1561 nm and 1593 nm. One gave us watt-level output power from 1600 nm to 1670 nm, with overall tuning range of 211 nm. The output linewidth of signal and idler was measured to be 0.08 nm and 0.15 nm respectively. The OPO centred at 1593 nm gave us a record tuning range of 254 nm, and with 3 dB output coupling fraction, it gave us large output powers (20-27 dBm) from 1610 nm to 1720 nm. Using a large seed generated by a watt-level fiber OPO in the U-band, and using 3 W of CW pump source in the C-band for Raman amplification, we generated 3 W of CW output power. This gave us nearly 100% conversion efficiency. Launching a high-power CW pump with narrow linewidth into a fiber makes stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) a major problem. We investigated an SBS suppressor, based on a common technique of phase dithering of the pump to suppress the SBS. We compared a multitone modulation technique to modulation with a pseudo-random bit sequence (PRBS), and we showed that it can increase the SBS threshold by 4.18 dB, and is less expensive to implement.

The fundamental limits of electronic systems in communication networks motivated scholars to think of an alternative approach to overcome problems such as demand for wider bandwidths and heat dissipation. All-optical signal processing is demonstrated as a potential solution. A major improvement in cost and speed of networking systems is expected through replacing microelectronics by photonic chips. However, the variety of operations essential to perform all-optical signal processing cannot be handled by a single material platform yet. Several III-V semiconductors, such as AlGaAs, have demonstrated potentials for photonic integration; nevertheless, there is still lack of data in literature on nonlinear optical properties of these materials. In this thesis, we extend the quest to evaluate more candidates from this class of semiconductors. Moreover, we are aiming for demonstrating the potentials of various III-V compounds for nonlinear photonics on-a-chip. In this thesis, we propose several optical waveguide designs based on quaternary III-V semiconductors AlGaAsSb and InGaAsP. We present modal analysis for waveguide designs and show that effective mode area much less than 1 $\mu m^{2}$ can be obtained. We also report specific waveguide designs that display zero-dispersion points at the specific wavelength ranges of interest. The designed waveguides are thus expected to demonstrate efficient nonlinear optical interactions. Next step is the fabrication of these devices with the goal to experimentally assess their nonlinear optical performance. The fabrication process of InGaAsP/InP strip-loaded waveguide is briefly reviewed. Following that, we report on the first, to the best of our knowledge, demonstration of third-order nonlinear optical interactions in InGaAsP/InP strip-loaded waveguides. We have performed self-phase modulation, nonlinear absorption measurements, and four-wave mixing experiments at the telecom wavelength range. The nonlinear phase shift up to 2.5 $\pi$ has been observed. Following that, we use Monte-Carlo method for design optimization and tolerance analysis of a multi-step lateral taper Spot-Size Converter in indium phosphide. An exemplary four-step lateral taper design featuring 0.35 dB coupling loss at optimal alignment of a standard single-mode fiber, $>$7 $\mu m$ 1-dB displacement tolerance in any direction of in a facet plane, and a great stability against manufacturing variances demonstrated.

Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is stochastic in nature and continues evolving in an unpredictable manner according to the changing environment. Nonlinear birefringence in multichannel systems alters the polarization states of the bits, so that they vary from one bit to the next in a way that is difficult to predict. These are the two major signal-impairment effects that are inherent in optical fibre transmission links which can seriously degrade network performance. It is therefore extremely challenging to compensate for both linear and nonlinear birefringence in multichannel systems. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the interaction between PMD and nonlinear induced birefringence in a fibre with consideration of mode coupling. A sound knowledge of this interaction is necessary in designing a linear and nonlinear polarization mode dispersion compensator for WDM systems, as was successfully carried out in this study. The investigation shows that the effect of nonlinear birefringence alone depolarizes the signal, while in high PMD links where polarization mode coupling is high, the nonlinear birefringence effect couples with second-order PMD such that it may reduce the penalty and improve the signal DOP. Further investigation shows that when nonlinear birefringence becomes significant, asymmetry arises between the two principal axes of the fibre, such that it is only one axis which experiences the effect of nonlinear birefringence. It is found out that along this vii axis, there exists a critical point in pump power where the nonlinear birefringence cancels PMD in the link and improves the signal. An adaptive compensator to cancel PMD and nonlinear birefringence was designed based on feedforward DOP-monitoring signal. The compensator was tested both at laboratory level and on the Telkom buried fibre link and found to be functioning as intended. It was able to adaptively track and compensate PMD in the link in less than a second. The compensator was able to cancel PMD in the link up to a maximum of 30 ps. The compensator improved the DOP of the worst signal by more than 100 percent.

Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microscopy is a versatile technique for label-free imaging and spectroscopy of systems of biophysical interest. Due to the coherent nature of the generated signals, CARS images and spectra can often be difficult to interpret. In this thesis, we document how distortions and enhancements can be produced in CARS hyperspectroscopy as a result of the instrument, geometrical optical effects, or unique molecular states, and discuss how these effects may be suppressed or exploited in various CARS applications.

Nanophotonics is a booming field of research with the promise of chip-scale devices which harness the tremendous potency of light. In this regard, surface plasmons have shown great potential for confining and manipulating light at extreme sub-wavelength scales. Advances in fabrication technology have enabled the scientific community to realize metasurfaces with unconventional properties that push the limits of possible applications of light. This thesis is comprised of computational and experimental studies on plasmonic metasurfaces. The computational study presents efficient design principles for plasmonic half-wave plates using L-shaped nanoantennas. These principles can be used to design waveplates at an operating wavelength of choice and for specific application requirements. The impact of this study goes beyond the efficient design of waveplates: it provides useful insights into the Physics of L-shaped nanoantenna arrays which have been proposed as building blocks for plasmonic metasurfaces. The experimental work investigates the interaction of a plasmonic metasurface, composed of dipole antenna arrays, with an epsilon-near-zero (ENZ) material. This work thus forms a bridge between plasmonics and ENZ materials science, which is a rapidly advancing field in its own right. The first experimental study investigates the exciting unconventional response of plasmonic dipole antennas when placed on a thin indium tin oxide (ITO) film near its ENZ wavelength of 1417 nm. The antenna-on-ITO system has split resonances whose spectral positions are largely independent of the antenna dimensions. The resonance splitting occurs due to coupling between the antenna resonance and the ENZ mode of the ITO film. This coupling results in field intensity enhancements on the order of a 100 in the ITO film. The second experimental study demonstrates, using the z-scan method, that this large field enhancement in the antenna-on-ITO structure further enhances the already strong nonlinearity of ITO around its ENZ wavelength. In particular, the antenna-on-ITO structure exhibits an extremely large nonlinear absorption coefficient, which is two orders of magnitude larger than that of a bare ITO film, and three to five orders of magnitude larger than that of many other nonlinear materials. This thesis thus constitutes a beautiful blend of three thriving areas of research: plasmonics, ENZ materials science and nonlinear optics. The findings reported here have the potential to contribute to all of these fields, and thus have relevance to a broad spectrum of optical scientists.

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Nonlinear optics is the study of interactions of materials with intense light beams made possible by the invention of laser. Arguably the most trivial but technologically most important nonlinear optical effect is the intensity-dependent nonlinear refraction: an intense light beam can temporarily and reversibly change the refractive index of a material. However, the changes to the refractive index of a material due to the presence of a strong laser beam are very weak---maximum on the order of $10^{-3}$---and tend to be a small fraction of the linear refractive index. It must be noted that at optical frequencies vacuum has a refractive index of 1 and glass has a refractive index of 1.5. Thus, one of the foundational assumptions of nonlinear optics is that the nonlinear optical changes to material properties are always a small perturbation to the linear response. In the 58-year history of nonlinear optics, one of the overarching themes of research has been to find ways to increase the efficiency of nonlinear interactions. This thesis is a collection of six manuscripts motivated by our experimental finding that at least in a certain class of materials the above long-standing view of nonlinear optics does not necessarily hold true. We have found that in a material with low refractive index, known as an epsilon-near-zero material or ENZ material, the nonlinear changes to the refractive index can be a few times larger than the linear refractive index, i.e. the nonlinear response becomes the dominant response of the material in the presence of an intense optical beam. We believe that the results presented in this thesis collectively make a convincing case that ENZ materials are a promising platform for nonlinear nano-optics.

Taking inspiration from a variety of creatures found in nature, this thesis demonstrates a new class of materials designed for light capture and guidance. Through the facile method of waveguide self-inscription developed herein, the arrangement of these self-generated light channels can be influenced to produce complex architectures. Inspired by the arrangement of ommatidia found in arthropodal eyes, this was first demonstrated through the fabrication of a radial arrangement of waveguides. This resulted in a thin, polymer film which demonstrated a continuous, panoramic field of view (FOV) able to successfully control the light of a light emitting diode (LED). Moving to more complex architecture, waveguides self-generated in a conical geometry were fabricated. More closely reminiscent of the geometry seen in arthropodal eyes, this waveguide architecture demonstrated a seamless omnidirectional FOV and enhanced imaging capabilities in conjunction with a CMOS camera chip. Lastly, using the method of waveguide self-inscription with an electroactive hydrogel precursor, remote controllable light guiding architectures, as inspired by deep sea creatures, are designed and fabricated. The application of an electric field, in conjunction with the stimuli-responsive waveguides, allows for precise control of the waveguide structures and therefore control over the waveguided light. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)