Although many theories have been formulated concerning atherosclerosis and its relationship to the incidence of coronary heart disease, few actual facts are known. It is known that atherosclerosis is very complex and appears to be influenced by many factors. It is postulated that an elevated serum cholesterol level is one predisposing factor. Serum cholesterol levels are likewise influenced by many factors. Age, sex, body build, exercise, socio-economic levels, smoking, health status, weight loss or gain, dietary fat, endocrine function, and stress have been shown to be related to serum cholesterol levels, and according to some authors also are related to atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Other research has shown contradictory findings. Since there is a high incidence of coronary heart disease in humans of middle-age and older in the United States, a great deal of research has been done on subjects of this age group. However, there appears to be no cure once the atheroma have been formed in the arteries, and, of necessity, attention must be focused on prevention of these plaques rather than curing them. This would suggest an early awareness of preventive measures and an early effort to prevent such complications. Working with preadolescents and adolescents is one implication. It is evident that general health education of these young people is useful. However, it would be especially helpful if possible trouble could be located in the early years of life and preventive measures taken. There has not been a general practice of determining serum cholesterol levels in young people, and there is not likely to be a need. Since height and weight data are taken regularly, if these data were plotted on growth charts, it would not be difficult to determine obesity and abrupt changes in growth in school-aged children. If obesity and abrupt changes in growth in school-aged children. If obesity were related to coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, and serum cholesterol, then it might be used as an indication for need to take precautionary measures. It is possible that the necessary preventive measures could be begun early and consequently help to reduce the incidence of atherosclerosis and thus coronary heart disease. The new-born infant has a very low serum cholesterol level which rises abruptly to near-adult values within the first few weeks or months of life. Few longitudinal studies have been made on pre-adolescents and adolescents and there is little agreement concerning the serum cholesterol pattern for these age groups. This period of adolescence is one of emotional stress. It is the beginning of many adult habits and of many of the stresses felt by adults. Therefore, it appears that it would be worthwhile to study young people and some of the characteristics which effect their serum cholesterol levels. The purpose of this study is to determine whether or not there is a relationship between body build, age, and sex and serum cholesterol levels. Since hemoglobin values may be considered an aid in determining physical status, hemoglobin values will also be discussed in relationship to serum cholesterol levels of preadolescents and adolescents in Box Elder County and Cache County, Utah.

Biochemical composition of blood and urine and estimated nutrient intake were used to evaluate the nutritional status of 187 fasting, ambulatory elderly residents of five southwestern Utah communities in the spring of 1975. Nutritional assessments included 17 biochemical and 23 dietary parameters. Measurements were also taken of height, weight, and blood pressure. Mean energy intakes were lower than the RDA for both men and women (1965 ± 527 Kcal and 1513 ± 371 Kcal, respectively), although a majority of the participants were above ideal weight. Cholesterol values above 250 mg/lOO ml of blood were found in 38 percent of the males and 48 percent of the females. Hypertension affected 58 percent of the population. Mean protein intake (79 ± 20 g for men and 61 ± 16 g for women) and serum total protein levels (7.2 ± 1 g/lOO ml blood for males and 6.7 + 1 g/100 m1 blood for females) were generally high. Hemoglobin values for 93 percent of the women and 82 percent of the men were adequate; none were found deficient. Mean serum iron levels were 109 ± 46 ug/lOO m1 for males and 94 + 36 ug/lOO ml for females. Dietary calcium was below the RDA for 71 percent and 44 percent of the women and men, respectively. Dietary fiber intake for 85 percent of the women and 62 percent of the men was below 4.7 grams. The status of the other nutrients appeared to be adequate.

The turkey industry is concerned with the effects of added dietary fat on turkey carcass composition. Rations were formulated containing different levels of added dietary fat, both with and without an adjustment i n dietary protein level. Orlopp 91 tom turkeys were fed diets containing 2 percent added fat (control), 4 percent added fat (energy/protein ratio constant with the control), 6 percent added fat (energy/protein ratio constant with the control), and a diet containing 6 percent added fat with a higher energy/protein ratio than the control. Data collected in the study showed that the percent fat in the dry matter of the turkey carcass increased more as a result of increasing the nutrient density of the diet than by increasing the diet energy level alone. This finding is contrary to current feeding assumptions which state that carcass composition should not be affected by energy level if a constant energy/protein ratio is maintained . The most significant effects of added dietary fat on turkey carcass composition occurred in the viscera and the skin. Increased dietary fat level with an increase in dietary protein level to maintain the same energy/protein ratio resulted in a statistically significant increase in the percent fat in the dry matter of the skin and the viscera. Percent fat in the dry matter of the light meat and dark meat showed sim.ilar trends due to increases in dietary fat levels. These differences were not statistically significant. Statistically significant positive correlations were found between the percent fat in the dry matter of the skin and the percent fat in the dry matter of the viscera. Lower, but still statistically significant positive correlations were also noted between the percent fat in the dry matter of the light meat and dark meat, viscera and light meat and the skin and light meat. There was also a significant correlation between the percent fat in the dry matter of the skin and the percent skin in the dressed turkey.

Iron deficiency has been shown to impair calcium absorption, leading to decreased bone mass. Vitamin D3-dependent calcium binding protein (CaBP) has been demonstrated to be necessary for the active transport of calcium in the intestine of numerous species. Iron deficiency might affect the activity of the calcium binding protein. Four experimental diets were formulated as follows: Diet 1, iron adequate, calcium adequate; Diet 2, iron deficient, calcium adequate; Diet 3, iron adequate, calcium deficient; Diet 4, iron deficient, calcium deficient. Weanling, female rats were separated into 4 groups of 48 animals each and fed the respective diet for a period of 66 or 67 days. Results of a 10-day metabolic study indicate that animals fed either the iron adequate, calcium deficient or iron deficient, calcium deficient diets adapted to the calcium deficiency in a comparable manner. The percent apparent calcium absorption in the animals fed the iron adequate, calcium deficient or iron deficient, calcium deficient diets was more than double (p < 0.01) the percent apparent calcium absorption of the animals fed the iron adequate, calcium adequate or iron deficient, calcium adequate diets.

The Wescor Dew Point Microvoltmeter, Model HR 33T, together with a Wescor C-52 sample chamber, was used to measure water activities between aw 1.0 and aw 0.60. Because of temperature gradient problems, the sample chamber was mounted in a styrofoam insulation box constructed so that the chamber could be opened and the sample replaced while it remained inside the closed insulation box. The standard psychrometric procedure was used for samples with a w between 1 and 0.94. A modified procedure was used for samples dryer than a 0.94. The sample chamber was first loaded with water, and water was condensed on the thermocouple. The water was then replaced by sliding the sample into the chamber, and the psychrometric cooling of the thermocouple measured. The procedure was calibrated with a series of salt solutions and saturated salt slurries of known aw, and was used to measure aw of a variety of foods. Four subsample determinations were made on from 8 to 23 separate days of the foods or standards. Typical water activity mean and standard deviation values were : milk chocolate bar .60 ~ .035; corn syrup sol ids .60 _I_ .019; nonfat dry milk .7 5 + .017; cashews . 75 ± .021; sunflower seeds .75 ± .022; orange juice concentrate .80 ± .026; whey concentrate . 83 ± .030; chocolate fudge sauce . 85 ± .028; Cheddar cheese .95 ± .026; salami .96 ± .019; Swiss cheese .9 6 ± .019; processed cheese spread .96 ± .023; Gouda cheese .99 ± .041; and soy sauce .98 ± .019. The coefficient of variations ranged from 1.9 to 5.8%. Accuracy of the instrument was good in that the a values varied only s = ± .03 for the literature values for various foods. No fouling of the detector occurred when powders were evaluated. Analysis time was 5 min for samples over aw 0.94 and 10 min for low aw samples. The Wescor instrument appeared to be rapid, economical, and to have good repeatability.

The Harland-Ashworth test for measuring undenatured whey protein nitrogen in nonfat dry milk was modified to measure undenatured whey protein nitrogen in dried whey. The new test was designed to measure absorbance in Harland-Ashworth filtrates at 280 nm to eliminate difficulties associated with turbidimetric measurements. One gram dried whey was reconstituted in 25 ml pH 6.7 phosphate buffer (.lM) in a 25 x 150 mm test tube. Ten grams sodium chloride were added. The test tubes were incubated for 30 min in a water bath at 37C and shaken 8-10 times in the first 15 min. The tubes were removed from the water bath and cooled to room temperature. The contents of the tubes were filtered through S & S 602 filter paper. One milliliter of filtrate was diluted with 10 ml H2o and the total absorbance was measured against a blank of 1 ml phosphate buffer saturated with sodium chloride, then diluted with 10 ml H2o. One milliliter of filtrate was mixed with 10 ml 13.2% trichloroacetic acid and filtered through Whatman 42 filter paper. The nonprotein absorbance was measured against a blank containing 1 ml phosphate buffer saturated with sodium chloride, then mixed with 10 ml 13.2% trichloracetic acid and filtered through Whatman 42 filter paper. Undenatured whey protein absorbance was the difference between total absorbance and nonprotein absorbance. Undenatured whey protein nitrogen per gram dried whey equaled the undenatured whey protein nitrogen absorbance multipled by 50.5462 (R2 = 0.9743). The test produced highly reproducible results with nonfat dry milk as well as dried whey. The relationship between absorbance and undenatured whey protein nitrogen was highly correlated and not solids concentration during heating or pH of the whey during heating.

Through telephone conversations with directors of 25 randomly selected sensory panels, it was established that the informed consent procedures of no-risk sensory panels vary greatly. The concern about biases of panelists' judgements, resulting from information given as part of the informed consent procedures, has been given as the reason for modifying or ignoring federally defined informed consent procedures. A series of three in-house and two separate consumer sensory panels were designed to test whether the ratings of altered flavor, altered viscosity, and unaltered milk could be affected by informed consent form usage. Two separate test situations included informed consent forms that were designed to induce participant apprehension. Another test condition included informed consent forms designed in such a manner as to emphasize the desirability of the samples. A control test situation that included no informed consent forms was also administered. In each panel, the off flavor, viscosity, and hedonic rating means of all samples and of each type of sample did not differ significantly when the samples were presented with each of the informed consent forms. When apprehension-inducing informed consent forms stating that the milk samples were obtained from diseased cows were used, the effect of the in-house sensory panelists' previous dairy experiences was to significantly raise their intensity and lower their hedonic ratings of milk samples at p = 0.05 and p = 0.01, respectively . This effect of informed consent usage was not lessened or increased by repeated form usage. This biasing effect of informed consent procedures was not found in consumer panel data. It is believed that the less controlled environment of the consumer panels and general trust of panelists resulted in less panelist attention to details of the panel and, therefore, less comprehension of the implications of the informed consent form. The possibility of biases resulting from informed consent usage should be considered in interpreting results of experiments in which informed consent procedures are used. The age of panelists in both the in-house and consumer panels was related to off flavor and hedonic ratings at p 0.01. In a linear manner, as panelists' ages increased, most liked the samples more and rated them as being less off flavored. Additionally, hedonic ratings of bitter and control samples were found to differ significantly between smoking and nonsmoking panel participants. Panelists who smoked cigarettes, cigars, and/or pipes rated these samples as less off flavored (at p = 0.10) and higher on the hedonic scale (at p = 0.05) than did nonsmoking panelists.

Background and Significance: The prevalence of type II-diabetes mellitus is increasing in the United States (U.S.) and was estimated to affect 29.1 million Americans in 2012. Several factors including genetics, insulin resistance, and decreased β cell mass can lead to the development of type II-diabetes. Nonetheless, interventions that target the early stages of its pathogenesis (i.e. pre-diabetes) before individuals are diagnosed with type II-diabetes would be ideal for preventing its development. Without appropriate interventions, pre-diabetes is typically followed by type II-diabetes mellitus at an annual rate of about 10%. The influence of diet on the development of type II-diabetes mellitus has been studied for years; however, it is necessary to find dietary interventions that will effectively reduce the risk of type II-diabetes especially in those who are at a higher risk such as overweight and obese individuals. Eggs are rich source of important nutrients including proteins, vitamins, e.g. A, E, and B12, minerals, carotenoids, and lecithin. Although there are studies that have demonstrated the ability of egg consumption to improve glycemic control, insulin sensitivity, and lipid profile, there is a lack of such studies in pre-diabetes as well as early stages of type II-diabetes and hence is the reason for this dissertation project. Methods: A total of 50 individuals between the ages of 40 to 75 years who are overweight or obese and have pre- and type II-diabetes were included in this 12-week, parallel, randomized intervention study. Subjects were randomly assigned to receive either: 1) one large egg per day to be incorporated into their usual diets for 12 weeks; or 2) control in which participants received an equivalent amount of egg substitute in terms of calories (3/4 cup liquid egg substitute per day) incorporated into their usual diets for 12 weeks. Serum and plasma samples were analyzed for TC, HDL-C, LDL-C, TG levels, apoA1, fasting blood glucose levels, insulin levels, and ABCA1 levels at baseline, 6- and 12-week. Body composition including percent fat mass, fat free mass, as well as android/gynoid ratio were assessed using DXA at baseline, 6- and 12-week. Questionnaires were used for monitoring dietary and physical activity patterns over the 12 weeks of the study. Analyses were performed for the 40 subjects who completed the entire study. Results: Self-reported compliance with the regiments were reported to be excellent and the retention of participants was high. Based on the self-reported food records, there were no significant differences in the food intake between the egg group and control. Also, there were no significant differences between the two groups in physical activity levels. There were no significant differences in weight, waist and hip circumferences between the two groups. The results from DXA scan showed that android fat was significantly lower at all visits in the egg group (P=0.05, 0.02, and 0.01); however, this result cannot be attributed to the consumption of eggs. Daily intake of egg resulted in improvements of blood glucose levels which was significantly lower at final visit in the egg group (P=0.05). Participants in the egg group had significantly lower levels of HOMA-IR at all visits (P=0.01). Additionally, insulin levels in the egg group was significantly lower at baseline and 6-week visits (P=0.01). However, none of these changes can be attributed to the treatment effects. There were no significant differences within and between groups for the calculated HOMA-β values. HDL-C levels were significantly higher for all visits in the egg group versus the control (P<0.001). Additionally, in the egg group, ABCA1 protein was significantly higher at the 6-week visit (0.78±0.21 mg/dL vs 0.28±0.05, P<0.001) and tended to be higher at the final visit (0.62±0.11 vs 0.55±0.18, P=0.1). Additionally, apoA1 levels was significantly higher at final visit in the egg group compared to the control (147.43±5.34 vs 142.81±5.09, P=0.01). There were no significant changes in total cholesterol and LDL-C levels. Discussion: The findings of this study suggest that daily consumption of egg may decrease diabetes risk factors without having any adverse effects on lipid profiles in diabetic individuals. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Nutrition, Food and Exercise Sciences in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2017. / June 21, 2017. / Includes bibliographical references. / Bahram H. Arjmandi, Professor Directing Dissertation; Robert J. Contreras, University Representative; Jeon-Su Kim, Committee Member; Penny A. Ralston, Committee Member.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are effective chemopreventive agents in various tissue types such as colon and breast. Until recently their mode of action was thought to be solely through inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2), which along with its products such as prostaglandin E2, are upregulated in tumors. However, gene regulation may, in part, explain the alterations in invasion, apoptosis, and/or cell proliferation seen with NSAIDs. In this report, we utilized microarray analysis of colorectal cancer cells treated with low, non-toxic concentrations of sulindac sulfide to show that the active metabolite of this NSAID and potent cancer chemopreventive drug regulates the expression of a variety of genes. Several genes related to cell growth and apoptosis, while others were transcription factors, which are important regulators of gene expression. NSAIDs such as the Cox-1 specific inhibitor SC-560 and the Cox-2 specific inhibitor SC-58125 modulated the expression of these genes in HCT-116 colorectal cancer cells, which correlated with the biological activity but not Cox-2 inhibitory activity of these compounds. Activating Transcription Factor 3 (ATF3) was one gene identified as induced by a variety of NSAIDs and confirmed in a variety of cell lines in our laboratory. ATF3 was induced by a variety of other compounds with cancer chemopreventive activity such as the PPAR gamma ligand troglitazone (TGZ) and the dietary compounds diallyl disulfide (DADS), resveratrol, and genistein. To ascertain the biological significance of the induction of ATF3, we overexpressed ATF3 in the sense and antisense orientation. Overexpression of ATF3 in the sense orientation reduced the size of mouse tumor xenografts by 54 percent in vivo. One explanation for the biological activity of ATF3 is down-stream gene modulation. Using microarray analysis, overexpression of ATF3 in the sense orientation regulated several genes related to invasion and metastasis. ATF3 overexpression decreased focus formation and inhibited invasion potential in vitro to a similar degree as sulindac sulfide treatment. Conversely, antisense ATF3 overexpression increased invasion potential and focus formation. Therefore, the biological activity of these compounds may be linked to the gene regulator role of ATF3. Lastly, we demonstrated that ATF3 is modulated by the transcription factor Early Growth Response Gene-1 (Egr-1). The induction of ATF3 by sulindac sulfide and TGZ at the mRNA, protein, and promoter level required Egr-1 and the Extracellular regulated kinase-1/2 (Erk-1/2) MAPK pathway. In conclusion, NSAIDs and other chemopreventive compounds alter the expression of a number of genes, in particular transcription factors, which may be linked to the biological activity of these compounds. Lastly, we dispute the dogma that ATF3 is solely a stress response gene and provide evidence that ATF3 has anti-cancer activity warranting further investigation.

Hyperhomocysteinemia(Hhcys) is a condition that several epidemiological studies have shown to be associated with atherosclerosis and thrombosis, due to an elevation of plasma homocysteine levels. Plasma homocysteine(hcys) levels have a tendency to rise with age and changes in nutrition. Hcys can affect coagulation proteins, altering the formation of blood clots. The mechanism(s) by which hcys might cause modification of coagulation proteins "in vivo" is not understood. My hypothesis is that adult and juvenile animals could respond differently to chronic administration of hcys, and elevated plasma levels of hcys might lead to modification of fibrinogen "in vivo". Methodology: Six months old (juvenile, n=6) and 12 month old (adult, n=6) New Zealand White rabbits were divided into control (n=3) and homocysteine-treated (hcys-trt) (n=3) groups and injected for seven weeks; afterwards, they were given a bolus injection of hcys. Blood was drawn to evaluate plasma clearance of hcys. At the end, rabbits were exsanguinated by cardiac puncture and blood was collected for coagulation studies. Results: Juvenile hcys-trt rabbits adapted to chronic administration of hcys, however, adult hcys-trt rabbits developed Hhcys. Adult hcys-trt rabbits had higher levels of malonaldehyde in liver tissue, which is evidence of oxidative stress. Juvenile hcys-trt rabbits had similar malonaldehyde levels as juvenile control rabbits. Plasma elimination of hcys was impaired in adult hcys-trt rabbits. Adult hcys-trt rabbits had increased fibrinogen levels, longer reptilase times, and shorter thrombin clotting times versus adult control rabbits. Clots formed from purified fibrinogen obtained from hcys-trt rabbits lysed slower than comparable clots formed from control rabbits purified fibrinogen. Some congenital dysfibrinogenemias have clots that are abnormally resistant to fibrinolysis due to alterations in fibrinogen structure, and lead to recurrent thrombosis. Clotting results for adult hcys-trt rabbits suggest that hyperhomocysteinemia leads to a similar acquired dysfibrinogenmia. Therefore, the prolonged reptilase times and formation of clots that are abnormally resistant to fibrinolysis could directly contribute to increased risk of thrombosis in hyperhomocysteinemia.