Faculty of Science School of Geography,Achaeology and Enviromental Studies 9905929t thodgskiss@yahoo.com / This study was stimulated by questions that arose on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) tools from Sibudu cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Many stone tools were found to have ochre traces or ochre plant resin traces on their proximal ends, as well as bending fractures on their laterals caused by hafting. This placement of ochre is unusual because it would be expected that ochre would be found on the working edges of the tools if they had been used to prepare ochre. A possible explanation is that the ochre is part of the hafting process and that ochre was used as an aggregate in the adhesive that held the stone tool to the haft. The question this research aims to answer is why ochre was used as an aggregate in plant resin instead of other easily acquirable substances, such as sand or ash. I have experimented with a variety of aggregates and then performed various activities with the hafted tools to test the strength and effectiveness of the different adhesive recipes. The chemical and physical properties of the ingredients used in the adhesives are also explored, together with principles of geological cementation and the methods involved in the creation of industrial concrete. Results of my replications are varied and they show that uncontrollable variables influence the resultant adhesive quality. Results contribute to understanding the uses and implications of the ochre on the MSA sites, and illuminate that people living in the MSA had an understanding of the best physical and chemical properties needed in adhesives, even though they could not have had an understanding of attributes like mineralogy and pH.

Phosphorus (P) pollution of waterbodies is a global issue with detrimental environmental, social and economic impacts. Low-cost and sustainable P removal technologies are therefore required to tackle P pollution, whilst also offering a technique for reclaiming P. Ochre, a waste product from minewater treatment plants (MWTPs), has been proposed as a suitable material for the removal of P from enriched waters due to a high content of Fe, Al, Ca and Mg, which have high affinities for P removal. Whilst a range of studies have been conducted investigating ochre as a P adsorbent, most of these are large-scale field experiments and lack understanding of the underlying processes of P removal by ochre. There have also been very few detailed comparisons of different ochre types. The primary focus of this thesis is thus to provide a process-based understanding of P removal by various ochres, in order to investigate the optimal conditions for the use of ochres in the treatment of aquatic P pollution. Seven ochres from six MWTPs in the UK and Ireland were investigated, one of which was in a pelleted form. The ochres were largely comprised of Al, Ca, Fe and Mg (42-68 % by dry weight), had a high B.E.T. surface area, 56-243 m2 g-1, and contained mineral surfaces with a high affinity for P adsorption, such as goethite and calcite. A novel batch experiment methodology was utilised to calculate the adsorption characteristics of ochre at discrete pH conditions. The variation of these characteristics with pH indicates the importance and requirement for such a method to study adsorption by materials at the expected pH conditions of application. At the pH conditions of wastewater streams (~pH 7), the P adsorption capacities of the ochres, determined from fitting adsorption isotherms, was 11.8–43.1 mg P g-1. Results of P adsorption batch experiments were modelled in ORCHESTRA, wherein P removal by the ochres was described well by adsorption onto hydrous ferric oxides. Three of the ochres contain relatively high calcite contents and due to a poor fit of the model to the observed datasets at high pH conditions, with equilibrium P concentrations lower in the batch experiments than the modelled result, adsorption onto calcite is suggested as a P removal mechanism for these ochres at pH > 7. Environmental application of ochre filters will require P removal under flow-through transport conditions. Column experiments were therefore conducted using two ochres, coarse-grained Polkemmet ochre and Acomb pellets (column volume 1055 cm3, pore space 490-661 cm3, typical pore volumes of experiments: 220-400). P removal efficiency increased with contact time, and the presence of competing ions had only marginal effects on P removal. Resting the column substrate for 48 hours between P applications greatly increased the P removal efficiency of a packed column of Polkemmet ochre, resulting in 81 % of influent P removed over 1000 pore volumes of operation (7.68 mg P g-1). Acomb pellets had a lower P removal efficiency than Polkemmet ochre. It is suggested that the high calcium content of the pellets, as a result of the pelletisation process, has created a substrate where the dominant P removal mechanism at neutral pH conditions is adsorption to calcite, which has slower reaction kinetics than adsorption onto goethite. Therefore, this pelleted ochre requires a higher contact time for adsorption reactions to occur. It is suggested that ochre filters are most suitable for application in situations where flow rate is constant or can be controlled e.g. septic tank effluent. Ochres which dry to a coarse particle size are preferred for use as a substrate as pelletisation requires capital, expertise and can produce substrates with slower P sorption kinetics. Resting the filter substrate between P application regenerates surface sites for adsorption, and filters should be run in parallel to maximise P removal efficiency. Acomb pellets, which are a mix of iron hydroxides and alkaline materials, may have potential application as a permeable reactive barrier substrate to treat P enriched ground waters. Further research utilising fine-grained ochres as an additive to P rich fertilisers or for use in continuously stirred tank reactors is recommended.

abstract: In recent years, southern Africa has figured prominently in the modern human origins debate due to increasing evidence for precocious behaviors considered to be unique to our species. These significant findings have included bone tools, shell beads, engraved ostrich eggshell, and heavily ground and engraved ochre fragments. The presence of ochre in Middle Stone Age (MSA, ~250-40kya) archaeological sites in southern Africa is often proposed as indirect evidence for the emergence of symbolic or artistic behavior, a uniquely modern human trait. However, there is no remaining artwork from this period and there is significant debate about what the ochre may have been used for. With a few exceptions, ochre has gone largely unstudied. This project tested competing models for ochre use within the Pinnacle Point (PP), South Africa research area. Combined results from characterization and sourcing analyses, color classification, heat treatment analysis, and hafting experiments suggest MSA ochre is tied to early symbolic or ritual behavior. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Anthropology 2012

Mionectes oleagineus (Aves, Tyrannidae) is a small, sexually monomorphic, lek breeding bird. The behaviour and mating system of this species were studied on Costa Rica's Osa Peninsula over two years. In this thesis I ask three questions: 1) What kind of social organization does M. oleagineus exhibit? 2) Does habitat influence male display dispersion? and 3) What is the function of song in attracting mates and in male-male interactions? In Chapter 2, I describe M. oleagineus' social organization. There were three categories of males: territory owners, satellites and floaters. The latter 2 categories were non-territorial and represented half of the male population. I describe interactions between displaying males and visitors to their territories, including courtship display and aggressive interactions between males. Male display dispersion was highly variable in the study area, including classical leks, in which territories shared contiguous boundaries, an exploded lek, where the territories did not share boundaries, and solitary display territories. In Chapter 3, I test the hypothesis that the number of males that can settle in an area, and their subsequent display dispersion, is determined by the availability and dispersion of suitable habitat. Discriminant function analysis of measures of vegetation structure from both territories and non-territory sample plots showed that territory habitat could be distinguished from non-territory habitat. Eleven percent of the sample plots were described as suitable habitat in the analysis. Given that half the male population is non-territorial, the existence of unoccupied, suitable habitat makes it unlikely that habitat availability determines the number of males settling, or their display dispersion. The major occupation of males on their display territories is singing. In Chapter 4, I investigate the function of song for M. oleagineus using behavioural observation and an experiment involving temporary muting. Males which sang at higher rates received more visitors of both sexes. The territories of most muted territorial males were rapidly usurped by other males. Two of the muted males regained their territories upon regaining the ability to sing. This study is the first to directly demonstrate a key role for song in male-male interactions on leks. It also provides evidence that females use song in mate assessment. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

Ochre is a culturally significant material that is commonly recovered from archaeological sites. However, despite its ubiquity it has yet to realize its full interpretive potential as an artifact of archaeological inquiry, specifically in the context of geochemical characterization studies. Studies of this type, often referred to as ‘sourcing’ studies, involve the application of techniques in radiation physics to determine the elemental composition of artifacts and raw materials. These data are then used interpret patterns of behaviour in the procurement, movement, and trade of different artifact classes such as obsidian, chert, or ceramic. By comparison, geochemical characterization studies centred on ochre-related activities are fewer in number. This thesis consists of three case studies that developed methodological foundations for the geochemical study of ochre in regions of British Columbia and Ontario, Canada, respectively. Using instrumental neutron activation analysis and X-ray fluorescence, ochre from geologic outcrops and archaeological sites were analysed to determine their elemental composition. Multivariate statistical tests, including principal components and canonical discriminant analyses, were conducted to explore patterns and variability in ochre geochemistries. The results described in the following papers demonstrate the challenges and limitations for characterization studies of ochre, and present considerations for expanded research in these geographic regions. This thesis offers contributions to broader topics of discussion in archaeological sciences, such as the accurate and precise acquisition of geochemical data, the role of geologic scales and diagenetic processes on the chemistries of iron oxides, how to identify and interpret patterns in elemental data sets, and the utility and limitations of portable analytical technologies. This research has established important methodological foundations for the study of ochre in British Columbia and Ontario, and has demonstrated the potential for expanded analysis of materials from additional archaeological sites and geologic outcrops. This will enable the future interpretation and regional synthesis of patterns and networks of ochre-related activities, including quarrying and procurement, trade and exchange, and variability in use contexts. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

No description available.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2015. / Ovahimba people from Kunene region, northern Namibia, are known for covering their bodies with red ochre mixed with clarified butterfat, traditionally known as otjize to give them a distinct red appearance. Ochre refers to a clay-like earth pigment which contains some form of iron-containing mineral. A mixture of traditional herbs with clarified butterfat, otjizumba, is also applied around the necks as a perfume. This study was prompted by ethnographic interviews amongst the Ovahimba people which revealed functional uses of the traditional cosmetics, specifically the red ochre-derived cosmetic, as a mosquito repellent. Several analytical techniques were used to determine the presence of mosquito repellent compounds in the red ochre- derived cosmetic and the aromatic plant derived-cosmetic. GC-MS was used to identify the presence of compounds which have previously been found to have mosquito repellent capabilities. GC-MS analysis identified mostly oxygenated compounds which include ketones (2-dodecanone, 2-nanonone, 2-undecanone and 2-tridecanone), aldehydes (heptanal and nonanal) and carboxylic acids (hexanoic acid and heptanoic acid) in dichloromethane extracts of otjize and mostly hydrocarbons (o-cymene, α-pinene, limonene, and squalene) and less oxygenated compounds (terpinen-4-ol and α-campholenal) in plant derived cosmetic extracts. The chemical composition of the cosmetics was also analyzed using FTIR. FTIR analysis for organics in both cosmetics showed presence of vibrational motions including O-H, C=O, C-H, C=C and C-C which affirmed the presence of organic functional groups including aldehydes, ketones, esters, alkenes and alkanes. Peak patterns observed using GC-FID showed that the mixture of red ochre and clarified butterfat released higher quantities of volatiles than when individual samples were analyzed. Mineralogical composition of red ochre was determined by PXRD, supported by FTIR which revealed as significant amount of hematite (Fe2O3), the primary mineral responsible for the red hue of the ochre. Other major minerals including quartz (SiO2), kaolinite (Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4, calcites (CaCO3) and chalconatronite(Na2Cu(CO3)2.3H2O) were found to be present in the ochre powder. Elemental analysis of the ochre determined using EDXRF and ICP-OES supported mineralogical composition as iii Ovahimba red ochre exhibited high content of iron (Fe) and silicon (Si) and a significant amount of aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca) and copper (Cu). Based on % weight, presence of transition metals in red ochre powder identified using ICP-OES was observed in the descending order; Fe> V> Cu> Au> Ti> Zr. Based on the analysis carried out in this study, it is suggested that red ochre provides catalytic role, due to its diverse metal content especially the presence of transition metals including Fe and Cu, which might be influencing the production of secondary products during autoxidation of fatty acids present in otjize, specifically ketones and aldehydes. It was also concluded that the composition of clarified butterfat could be attributed to the release of mosquito repellent compounds in the red ochre derived cosmetic because when animal fat (kudufat) was used as an organic binder, the mixture did not release any of the identified possible mosquito repellent compounds. Keywords: Aldehydes, autoxidation, clarified butterfat, fatty acids, ketones, mosquito repellents, and red ochre

The rock art that is found in the region of Reindeer Lake, Saskatchewan is part of a larger category of rock art known as the Shield Rock Art Tradition. At present, there are more than 400 known and recorded rock art sites throughout the Canadian Shield region. These sites are found over an extensive geographical area and can be found from south-western Quebec across the Shield westward, up to north-western Saskatchewan. The majority of these rock art sites are comprised of imagery that has been painted on rock surfaces. The rock art sites at Reindeer Lake, or panels as they are called, depict a variety of symbols and characters that portray humans, animals, anthropomorphs, ceremonies and motifs of a spiritual nature. A variety of explanations have been proposed as to the function and meaning of rock art in general. Among the more accepted explanations are that rock art paintings were created by shamans; that they depict dreams or visions of an individual seeking medicine or participating in a vision quest/puberty rites; that they are a form of hunting magic whereby the author in capturing the animal in a painting assures capture of the animal in life; or that they serve as markers for travellers. Regardless of function and meaning, all of the rock art sites on Reindeer Lake are of immense heritage value and should be regarded as sacred locations. Very little is known about the rock art in the Reindeer Lake regions. Before any significant analyses of their meaning can be conducted, they must first be relocated and properly documented. At present there are only a very small number of publications that document or mention the Reindeer Lake rock art. This thesis surveys the rock art of Reindeer Lake, Saskatchewan. It discusses the general nature of pictographs from the Shield Rock Art Tradition and how the panels at Reindeer Lake fit into the overall scheme, and applies a systematic method to the recording and analysis of pictographs using a contextual approach. Although the primary focus is on recording the painted imagery, the specific context of each panel as well as the surrounding landscape is also considered. Recording these ancient rock art sites using a proper systematic method has ensured that this significant element of Aboriginal culture will endure not only for future research, but also for the benefit of future generations of the local Cree people.

The rock art that is found in the region of Reindeer Lake, Saskatchewan is part of a larger category of rock art known as the Shield Rock Art Tradition. At present, there are more than 400 known and recorded rock art sites throughout the Canadian Shield region. These sites are found over an extensive geographical area and can be found from south-western Quebec across the Shield westward, up to north-western Saskatchewan. The majority of these rock art sites are comprised of imagery that has been painted on rock surfaces. The rock art sites at Reindeer Lake, or panels as they are called, depict a variety of symbols and characters that portray humans, animals, anthropomorphs, ceremonies and motifs of a spiritual nature. A variety of explanations have been proposed as to the function and meaning of rock art in general. Among the more accepted explanations are that rock art paintings were created by shamans; that they depict dreams or visions of an individual seeking medicine or participating in a vision quest/puberty rites; that they are a form of hunting magic whereby the author in capturing the animal in a painting assures capture of the animal in life; or that they serve as markers for travellers. Regardless of function and meaning, all of the rock art sites on Reindeer Lake are of immense heritage value and should be regarded as sacred locations. Very little is known about the rock art in the Reindeer Lake regions. Before any significant analyses of their meaning can be conducted, they must first be relocated and properly documented. At present there are only a very small number of publications that document or mention the Reindeer Lake rock art. This thesis surveys the rock art of Reindeer Lake, Saskatchewan. It discusses the general nature of pictographs from the Shield Rock Art Tradition and how the panels at Reindeer Lake fit into the overall scheme, and applies a systematic method to the recording and analysis of pictographs using a contextual approach. Although the primary focus is on recording the painted imagery, the specific context of each panel as well as the surrounding landscape is also considered. Recording these ancient rock art sites using a proper systematic method has ensured that this significant element of Aboriginal culture will endure not only for future research, but also for the benefit of future generations of the local Cree people.

L’utilisation de l’ocre, interprétée comme la preuve d’une cognition complexe et dans certains cas d’un comportement symbolique, est l’un des traits culturels les plus controversés en contexte paléolithique. Les analyses systématiques de ses différentes phases de traitement sont rares, particulièrement en Afrique de l’Est, malgré l’importance de cette région pour l’étude de l’origine de l’homme moderne. Le but de cette thèse est de reconstruire la chaîne opératoire du traitement de l’ocre à la grotte du Porc-Épic (Dire Dawa, Éthiopie), site clef de la Corne de l’Afrique, afin de déterminer sa fonction et son rôle au sein de populations MSA. Nos résultats montrent que cette collection d’ocre est la plus abondante connue jusqu’à présent dans un site paléolithique, avec 40 kg d’ocre (n = 4213 pièces), 21 outils de traitement et deux galets ocrés trouvés dans des niveaux de ca. 40 ka cal BP. L’analyse de la distribution spatiale a permis de déterminer que la séquence n’a pas été perturbée significativement. Nous avons identifié des zones d’accumulation d’ocre interprétées comme des aires consacrées au traitement de ce matériel. L’analyse technologique a permis d’identifier une grande variété de traces d’utilisation. A travers une analyse par μ-Raman, MEB-EDS et DRX nous avons démontré que les meules et broyeurs ont été utilisés pour traiter différentes types d’ocre. La variété de matières premières et des techniques de traitement indiquent une production de poudres de différentes couleurs et textures, adaptées à des fonctions diverses. Une continuité dans le traitement de l’ocre a été mise en évidence le long de la séquence et interprétée comme le reflet d’une adaptation culturelle transmise au cours du temps. Des analyses rugosimétriques ont montré que l’ocre était traitée pour produire des quantités réduites de poudre. Cela, ainsi que la présence d’un galet possiblement utilisé comme tampon, semblent indiquer une utilisation de l’ocre pour des activités symboliques. Une analyse ethnoarchéologique de l’ocre chez les Hamar (Éthiopie) nous a permis d’évaluer la complexité du traitement de ce matériel et de souligner sa fonction à la fois utilitaire et symbolique. / Ochre is one of the most controversial features found at Palaeolithic sites. It is often interpreted as proof of behavioural complexity and, in some cases, as a marker of symbolically mediated behaviour. Detailed reconstructions of ochre processing techniques are rare, particularly in East Africa, despite the fact that it is one of the most significant areas for the study of the emergence of Homo sapiens. The aim of this thesis is to conduct a detailed reconstruction of the ochre chaîne opératoire at Porc-Epic Cave (Dire Dawa, Ethiopia), key site for the East African Middle Stone Age (MSA). Our approach permits the function of ochre and its significance for late MSA groups to be explored. Our results show that this site has yielded the largest known MSA ochre collection, comprising 40 kg of ochre (n = 4213 pieces), 21 ochre processing tools and two ochre stained artefacts from levels dated to ca. 40 ka cal BP. The analysis of the spatial distribution suggests that no major post-depositional reworking occurred at the site and allowed us to identify ochre accumulations, interpreted as areas devoted to ochre processing. Different types of modification marks were identified. SEM-EDS, μ-Raman and XRD analyses conducted on ochre residues from the processing tools suggest that these tools were used to process different types of ochre.The variety of raw materials and processing techniques indicates that ochre powder of different coarseness and shades was used for a variety of functions. Our results identify patterns of continuity in ochre acquisition, treatment and use, interpreted as the expression of a cohesive cultural adaptation, consistently transmitted through time. Rugosimetric analyses show that ochre was probably processed to produce small amounts of ochre powder. Additionally, a pebble possibly used as a stamp was identified. This seems to suggest a use of ochre for symbolic activities. An ethnoarchaeological analysis of ochre use among the Hamar, Ethiopia, allowed us to evaluate the complexity of the ochre chaîne opératoire and to highlight its use in both functional and symbolic activities.