Medicinal turpentine has been used extensively in the eastern Free State and KwaZulu-Natal in the belief that it is able to prevent and treat redwater in cattle. A number of commercial beef farmers have been using it for many years and the information has been passed down through generations. Redwater is often a fatal disease in cattle and results in losses of large numbers every year in South Africa. In this study redwater is used to describe both Babesia bigemina (African redwater) and Babesia bovis (Asiatic redwater). Redwater is also known as babesiosis. Medicinal turpentine is obtained by the distillation of resin obtained from numerous pine tree species as a by-product during the production of chemical wood pulp9,72. The use of turpentine for the treatment of redwater is, however, yet to be scientifically validated. This study was initiated in an attempt to investigate the validity in the use of the turpentine as a medicinal agent. For this study the use of turpentine was evaluated in three parts. The first component of the study involved a detailed survey with ten commercial farmers from KwaZulu-Natal and the eastern Free State who were known to be proponents for the use of turpentine. The second part of the study made use of a screening assay of Babesia caballi in a red cell culture which was exposed to various concentrations of turpentine in comparison to Diminazene and Imidocarb. Both of these drugs are used on a large scale in the conventional treatment of redwater and are at this point in time the most effective treatments available in South Africa. In the third part a tolerance study was undertaken. Twenty four cattle were treated with turpentine. Three different volumes were used and a control group was treated with saline. Blood was then drawn from these animals at specified intervals and pre-determined parameters were measured. These included obtaining serum for Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina serology to determine whether the animals used had ever been exposed to either one of these parasites. Temperatures, weights, pregnancy status and injection site reactions were also monitored. From the information gathered farmers are using turpentine in a fairly consistent manner so it was relatively straight forward to design a treatment protocol for the tolerance study that could be representative of what was being done in the field. The cultures indicated that turpentine may have a delayed static effect on parasite growth or it may have an indirectly cidal effect. This effect was most obvious at certain concentrations. It was not seen with all the concentrations used in the cultures. The tolerance study revealed that a significant effect was seen in the protein levels and no deleterious effects were noted either in liver or kidney function. Further studies will need to be undertaken to determine the exact effect turpentine has on the immune response and whether this response is in fact adequate to protect animals from redwater. AFRIKAANS : Die gebruik van medisinale terpentyn is ekstensief in KwaZulu-Natal en die oos Vrystaat gebruik vir die voorkoming van beide Afrika en Asiatiese rooiwaterstamme. Hierdie gebruik is reeds geslagte lank vir die behandeling en voorkoming van rooiwater deur boere gebruik. Rooiwater is n toenemende probleem vir kommersiële boere en daar kom jaarliks groot veeverliese voor. Medisinale terpentyn is die byproduk van sekere denneboomspesies. Die harpuis verkry tydens die vervaardiging van houtpulp met die Kraftproses, word gedistilleer9,72. Tydens die ondersoek na die gebruik van terpentyn deur sekere boere is eerstens tien boere van KwaZulu-Natal en die oos Vrystaat betrek. ‘n Vraelys is opgestel waarin die betrokke boere oor die gebruik van terpentyn gevra is. Tweedens is kulture van Babesia caballi in die laboratorium gekweek en met verskillende konsentrasies van terpentyn behandel. Diminazene en Imidocarb is as die positiewe kontroles gebruik. Beide hierdie produkte word op groot skaal met sukses deur boere gebruik om beide rooiwaterspesies te bestry. Huidiglik is dit die mees effektiewe behandeling van rooiwater in Suid Afrika. Derdens is die verdraagsaamheidstudie onderneem en vier en twintig beeste is in die proef gebruik. Terpentyn is teen drie verskillende konsentrasies gebruik. Die kontrole groep is met soutwater behandel. Bloed is met verskillende intervalle van die beeste getrek en vooraf bepaalde parameters is vir meting gebruik. Dié oefening het ingesluit die verkryging van serum om te bepaal of die diere voorheen blootgestel was aan enige van die rooiwaterspesies. Temperatuur, gewigte, dragtigheidstatus en reaksie op die inspuitplekke is gemonitor. Die gegewens ingewin by die boere wat terpentyn gebruik, was voor die handliggend om toleransie daarvan in die praktyk te bepaal. Die kweking van die parasiete dui daarop dat verskillende konsentrasies van terpentyn die groei daarvan vertraag en moontlik vernietig. Hierdie effek is nie by al die konsentrasies waargeneem nie. Die toleransie studie het aan die lig gebring dat dit ‘n effek op die proteïenvlakke gehad het maar geen newe-effekte op die lewer en nierfunksie gehad het nie. Verdere studies sal onderneem moet word om te bepaal watter effek terpentyn op die immuunstelsel het en of dit genoegsaam is om diere teen rooiwater te beskerm. Copyright / Die gebruik van medisinale terpentyn is ekstensief in KwaZulu-Natal en die oos Vrystaat gebruik vir die voorkoming van beide Afrika en Asiatiese rooiwaterstamme. Hierdie gebruik is reeds geslagte lank vir die behandeling en voorkoming van rooiwater deur boere gebruik. Rooiwater is n toenemende probleem vir kommersiële boere en daar kom jaarliks groot veeverliese voor. Medisinale terpentyn is die byproduk van sekere denneboomspesies. Die harpuis verkry tydens die vervaardiging van houtpulp met die Kraftproses, word gedistilleer9,72. Tydens die ondersoek na die gebruik van terpentyn deur sekere boere is eerstens tien boere van KwaZulu-Natal en die oos Vrystaat betrek. ‘n Vraelys is opgestel waarin die betrokke boere oor die gebruik van terpentyn gevra is. Tweedens is kulture van Babesia caballi in die laboratorium gekweek en met verskillende konsentrasies van terpentyn behandel. Diminazene en Imidocarb is as die positiewe kontroles gebruik. Beide hierdie produkte word op groot skaal met sukses deur boere gebruik om beide rooiwaterspesies te bestry. Huidiglik is dit die mees effektiewe behandeling van rooiwater in Suid Afrika. Derdens is die verdraagsaamheidstudie onderneem en vier en twintig beeste is in die proef gebruik. Terpentyn is teen drie verskillende konsentrasies gebruik. Die kontrole groep is met soutwater behandel. Bloed is met verskillende intervalle van die beeste getrek en vooraf bepaalde parameters is vir meting gebruik. Dié oefening het ingesluit die verkryging van serum om te bepaal of die diere voorheen blootgestel was aan enige van die rooiwaterspesies. Temperatuur, gewigte, dragtigheidstatus en reaksie op die inspuitplekke is gemonitor. Die gegewens ingewin by die boere wat terpentyn gebruik, was voor die handliggend om toleransie daarvan in die praktyk te bepaal. Die kweking van die parasiete dui daarop dat verskillende konsentrasies van terpentyn die groei daarvan vertraag en moontlik vernietig. Hierdie effek is nie by al die konsentrasies waargeneem nie. Die toleransie studie het aan die lig gebring dat dit ‘n effek op die proteïenvlakke gehad het maar geen newe-effekte op die lewer en nierfunksie gehad het nie. Verdere studies sal onderneem moet word om te bepaal watter effek terpentyn op die immuunstelsel het en of dit genoegsaam is om diere teen rooiwater te beskerm. / Dissertation (MMedVet)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

The aims of this study were to develop a detailed record of the tetranychid mites of Kenya and Tanzania, to assess the diversity of tetranychid mites in the east African biodiversity hotspots and to determine female characters that can be used to identify the species of the economically important Tetranychus species found in these countries. The genetic diversity of the most abundant Tetranychus species (Tetranychus evansi Baker & Pritchard) was also assessed. The Tetranychidae (Acari) contain some of the most important pest species of phytophagous mites worldwide. Out of the almost 1,300 species in this family, 256 species are known to occur in Africa. Before this study, ten species had been reported from Kenya and only three in Tanzania. The genus Tetranychus to which most of the pest species belongs to, can only be identified to species level by the use of the male aedeagus that is often difficult to visualize. The natural habitat, the Eastern Arc Mountains and East African Coastal Forests in Kenya and Tanzania is recognized as biodiversity hotspots but prior to his study, information on Tetranychidae in these hotspots was lacking. Thus, no information on the natural mite fauna composition was available. In Kenya, 18 tetranychid mite species from various plant hosts have been recorded. Four of these species belong to the subfamily Bryobiinae and the other 14 to the subfamily Tetranychinae. Eight of the mite species identified belong to the genera Bryobia, Petrobia, Peltanobia, Paraplonobia, Duplanychus, Eutetranychus and Mixonychus and are being reported for the first time in Kenya while the other ten had already been reported before. For Tanzania, six species belonging to the genera Tetranychus, Eutetranychus and Mixonychus are being reported for the first time from Tanzania and other three had been reported before. A list of these species, their brief descriptions as well as a key for identification is provided. A redescription of Peltanobia erasmusi including previously undescribed male characters is given. Schizotetranychus kwalensis sp. nov. from Kenya and Brevinychus meshacki from Tanzania were collected on Omorcarpum kirkii (Fabaceae) from Matuga, Kwale district, Kenya and Philonoptera eriocalyx (Fabaceae) from Sangasanga, Mvomero district, Tanzania respectively and described. Revised keys of Brevinychus and of the African species of Schizotetranychus are also provided. Tetranychus evansi Baker & Pritchard ranked highest in abundance amongst all the tetranychid mites collected. It was found in four out of five fragments of the hotspot, and it survives in a wide range of altitudes from as low as 123 m to 1655 m. Molecular examination of T. evansi collected from Kenya and Tanzania and on different host plants revealed an identical DNA sequence of the mitochondrial COI fragment and 19 identical microsatellite alleles suggesting a single introduction of this species to this part of East Africa. Female characters of four Tetranychus species found in Kenya were explored using the scanning electron microscope. Differences in the distances between the duplex setae of species belonging to the desertorum group (Tetranychus evansi Baker & Pritchard and Tetranychus ludeni Zacher) and those grouped by Flechtmann and Knihinicki (2002) under group 9 (Tetranychus neocaledonicus Andre and Tetranychus urticae Koch) were observed. The dorsal striae of T. evansi, T. neocaledonicus and T. urticae have semicircular lobes whereas those on the dorsal striae of T. ludeni are triangular. / Thesis (PhD (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The aims of this study were to develop a detailed record of the tetranychid mites of Kenya and Tanzania, to assess the diversity of tetranychid mites in the east African biodiversity hotspots and to determine female characters that can be used to identify the species of the economically important Tetranychus species found in these countries. The genetic diversity of the most abundant Tetranychus species (Tetranychus evansi Baker & Pritchard) was also assessed. The Tetranychidae (Acari) contain some of the most important pest species of phytophagous mites worldwide. Out of the almost 1,300 species in this family, 256 species are known to occur in Africa. Before this study, ten species had been reported from Kenya and only three in Tanzania. The genus Tetranychus to which most of the pest species belongs to, can only be identified to species level by the use of the male aedeagus that is often difficult to visualize. The natural habitat, the Eastern Arc Mountains and East African Coastal Forests in Kenya and Tanzania is recognized as biodiversity hotspots but prior to his study, information on Tetranychidae in these hotspots was lacking. Thus, no information on the natural mite fauna composition was available. In Kenya, 18 tetranychid mite species from various plant hosts have been recorded. Four of these species belong to the subfamily Bryobiinae and the other 14 to the subfamily Tetranychinae. Eight of the mite species identified belong to the genera Bryobia, Petrobia, Peltanobia, Paraplonobia, Duplanychus, Eutetranychus and Mixonychus and are being reported for the first time in Kenya while the other ten had already been reported before. For Tanzania, six species belonging to the genera Tetranychus, Eutetranychus and Mixonychus are being reported for the first time from Tanzania and other three had been reported before. A list of these species, their brief descriptions as well as a key for identification is provided. A redescription of Peltanobia erasmusi including previously undescribed male characters is given. Schizotetranychus kwalensis sp. nov. from Kenya and Brevinychus meshacki from Tanzania were collected on Omorcarpum kirkii (Fabaceae) from Matuga, Kwale district, Kenya and Philonoptera eriocalyx (Fabaceae) from Sangasanga, Mvomero district, Tanzania respectively and described. Revised keys of Brevinychus and of the African species of Schizotetranychus are also provided. Tetranychus evansi Baker & Pritchard ranked highest in abundance amongst all the tetranychid mites collected. It was found in four out of five fragments of the hotspot, and it survives in a wide range of altitudes from as low as 123 m to 1655 m. Molecular examination of T. evansi collected from Kenya and Tanzania and on different host plants revealed an identical DNA sequence of the mitochondrial COI fragment and 19 identical microsatellite alleles suggesting a single introduction of this species to this part of East Africa. Female characters of four Tetranychus species found in Kenya were explored using the scanning electron microscope. Differences in the distances between the duplex setae of species belonging to the desertorum group (Tetranychus evansi Baker & Pritchard and Tetranychus ludeni Zacher) and those grouped by Flechtmann and Knihinicki (2002) under group 9 (Tetranychus neocaledonicus Andre and Tetranychus urticae Koch) were observed. The dorsal striae of T. evansi, T. neocaledonicus and T. urticae have semicircular lobes whereas those on the dorsal striae of T. ludeni are triangular. / Thesis (PhD (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.