This study explores various aspects of the spelling and punctuation development of six Tohono O'odham (Papago) children during their third and fourth grade years. The data used, which was collected in a prior study, consisted of 215 texts (13,793 words) written in natural classroom settings as part of the teacher's ongoing writing curriculum. Field notes decribing what the subjects did as they wrote, as well as written interviews, supplemented the texts themselves. A number of specific features were examined to explore the subjects' use of various level of linguistic information about spelling. Those features included: initial letters, vowel phonemes, consonant digraphs, the letters C and G, consonant gemination, bound morphemes, and homophones. Spellings involving permutation (changes in letter order) and the letters E and Y as final markers, as well as those spellings which were real words, were also examined. Finally, differences between spellers, the subjects' use of punctuation and capitalization, and orthography in the classroom context were analyzed. A number of conclusions were drawn from the analysis. The subjects spelled most words conventionally. The more frequently a word appeared in the subjects' writing, the more likely it was to be spelled conventionally. Selected orthographic features varied widely in how conventionally they were spelled, with those which were less predictable or more abstract tending to be more difficult. Almost every spelling feature examined showed growth from third to fourth grade. The invented spellings of particular features tended to reflect understandable, logical processes. Invented spellings which were either real words or permutations of the intended word were common. There were differences between children not only in how conventionally they spelled but in the types of invented spellings they produced. Punctuation was more difficult than spelling for the subjects, and its use varied greatly between subjects. Capitalization was comparable to spelling in how conventionally it was used. Children used a variety of linguistic information and spelling strategies as they wrote. There was evidence that punctuation usage was driven (at least in some cases) by conscious hypotheses about how it works. Children's metalinguistic knowledge about orthography may or may not parallel their use of it.

This study was designed to determine the relative effectiveness of a group-study approach to the teaching of spelling as compared with an individual-study approach to the teaching of spelling in the seventh grade of a school with a large number of students of Latin American extraction.

In this two-part study, English spelling errors of Arabic speaking students are investigated. Specifically, an empirical study is done to document and investigate exactly what kinds of English spelling errors Arabic-speaking students actually make. Then these data are analyzed. and spelling error patterns are discovered. Next. a study is done to determine if the presence of spelling errors in written work has a significant negative effect on readers' evaluations of this writing.

An experimental comparison was made of two mediations of spelling instruction with sight words: a traditional paper and pencil presentation and a computer-assisted presentation. Five students identified as learning disabled participated in the investigation over the course of five to six weeks in an elementary mainstreamed setting. The microcomputer presentation consisted of a commercially available spelling program incorporating visual and auditory error verification procedures. A counterbalanced ABAC/ACAB intrasubject replication design was used to evaluate the spelling performances (percent correct, correct spelling sequences, and rates of responses).Findings1. The results indicated that the microcomputer presentation of the spelling words did not effectively enhance achievement over that of paper and pencil.2. The use of error verification procedures with the microcomputer format did not result in more efficient learning. Rather, these subjects learned more quickly without the verification procedures. Informal observations further indicated that the students ignored the cues provided for verification.3. The intrasubject replication format of this investigation indicated that there were no order effects of the treatment conditions or of the error verification conditions.4. The students in this experiment required a longer session each day and took more time to respond when working on the microcomputer than with the paper and pencil presentation. These students, however, lacked typing skills which increased their response times on the microcomputer.5. Informal observations indicated that attention-to-task behavior was enhanced by the microcomputer. Although the subjects worked for a longer period of time in this mode, their attention was focused on the task.6. Because of the questionable instructional value of much of the software, the use of microcomputers in comparison with traditional and less costly modes of instruction should be carefully evaluated.

Recent research in phonological awareness found a strong link between rhyming ability in preschool children and later reading achievement. The use of orthographic analogy, the ability to make inferences from similarities in spelling to similarities in sound, was proposed as the mechanism to explain this relationship (Goswami & Bryant, 1990). Literature was presented that suggested the need for further research. Four research questions were examined. First, can prereaders learn to read unfamiliar words on the basis of orthographic analogy after brief training with rhyming words? The evidence supported the view that they could. Second, will the ability to read words by orthographic analogy be enhanced by phonological training in onset and rime, and by the use of segmented text? The brief phonological training did not increase analogy word reading over the same training without it. However, using text segmented at the onset-rime boundary for training items did increase analogy word reading. Third, will reading by orthographic analogy vary according to the level of prereading skills (rhyming ability, phoneme identity, letter-sound knowledge)? The majority of children with high prereading skills learned to read analogy test words whereas most children with low prereading skills found the task too arduous. Fourth, will rhyming ability make an independent contribution to reading achievement? The results were equivocal. Rhyming ability did make an independent contribution to the number of trials taken to learn the training items. It did not when analogy word reading was the dependent variable. Phoneme identity accounted for most of the variance in analogy word reading. Further analyses found that the ability to identify the final phoneme was the best discriminator between children who learned to read analogy test words and those who did not. A possible explanation was that children used the final phoneme to determine the sound of the rime ending rather than the last two phonemes together.

General education and special education teachers are expected to provide evidence-based instruction to all students in the classroom. Along with that, they must make sure that their students pass the state mandated tests based on state standards. Meeting the needs of everyone in the classroom is a difficult task especially with 10-20% of those students having special learning needs that require a different approach to assessment and instruction. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role that metacognitive strategies have in second grade students with learning disabilities while they are performing written spelling lists and story generation tasks. One-on-one interviews were conducted with two second grade students with learning disabilities after they had written ten word spelling lists as well as a story based on a photograph of their choice. The interviews were conducted to identify what metacognitive processes they used by asking them to report and reflect on what they wrote, how they knew what to write, and whether or not they could identify what they wrote was correct, as well as being able to independently correct any errors they made. The results indicate that although their metacognitive strategies were emerging, they had difficulty reporting consistently and accurately what spelling strategies they used. They also had difficulty reflecting on whether a word was correct or incorrect and if incorrect, how to correct it. Each student used a different approach to spelling a word, one “Brute Force” and the other “Rule-based.” Neither of these approaches worked effectively for these students as they made many spelling errors and still had difficulty correcting them. The overall findings indicate that these two second grade students with learning disabilities used limited metacognitive strategies of monitoring, regulating and reflecting. What strategies they did employ, were not consistent or effective to help them achieve a level of spelling efficiency needed to be successful in second grade. / Department of Special Education

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has taken over every aspect of our daily lives, from commerce to leisure and even culture. Today, mobile phones, desktop computers, hand-held devices, emails and the use of the internet have become a central part of our culture and society. ICT has made us a global society, where people can interact and communicate efficiently. In order for South Africa to be competitive in the global economy, it will need to develop a workforce with appropriate Information Technology skills. Of necessity, these skills will extend to using a computers and developing appropriate software and technical support skills (DOE, 2008). This thesis represents a critical analytical study in that it explores the online Sesotho Information and Communication Technology (ICT). It aims at analysing terminology development in this area. The study aims to determine how Sesotho and ICT correlate and how the linguistic aspect plays a role in online ICT terminology. The focus is not on creating new terms but to analyze the already existing ICT terms available, with regards to linguistic rules and principles and to critique if they are of quality. Furthermore, the thesis explores whether there are other strategies that can be used in the development of this terminology. It also seeks to determine if the terms are easily accessible to students and if they are used at all. Terms will be sourced from the Department of Arts and Culture ICT term list, and the focus will be on extracting only terms that have to do with computer literacy. Other online sources that list Sesotho equivalents will also be considered. The study also assesses the quality of the terms created by the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) together with the Department of Communications (DOC) for a multilingual ICT terminology list. Furthermore, the thesis explores whether the Sesotho equivalents adhere to the linguistic rules and principles of the language. The other question asked is whether the terms are used by the intended users and if they are easily accessible to the speakers of the language. This entire aspect of the thesis speaks to the notion of the intellectualization of African languages and in this case Sesotho in particular. Not only does the thesis engage with computer literacy terminology, it also presents a detailed literature review of studies and work that has been done in this field. The thesis engagement is also done by linking the backdrop of the history of Sesotho and the Basotho peoples.

M.Ed. / This case study focuses on the pedagogy of spelling and reading in a grade two class at an independent school. It has set out to investigate and understand the roles of the teacher and learner at the initial phases of this school activity. A pilot study, conducted through observation in the class that was used for the case study, indicated not only the possibility of there being roles for the teacher and learner, but also that definite problems arise at this stage of reading instruction. The case study continued from the pilot investigation and sought to understand the pedagogy of reading with special reference to the role of spelling in this. While reading and spelling are the focus of the study at hand, two further issues formed part of the investigation: the role of Piagetian development served as a framework in which the pedagogy of initial spelling and reading was examined; and, the popular South African perception, that independent schools offer a better education to children than other schools, was challenged. An essential part of this case study is the literature review. This review investigates a theory of reading, Piagetian theory of cognitive development, theories of language, semiotic theory and various issues surrounding spelling. Suggested within the review are a more comprehensive model of language and a more adequate model of semiotics. These models, specifically intended to be of use to teachers, form part of the conceptual framework and eventually of the suggested model of reading that is proposed on the basis of the research. The literature review indicates that reading is a complex activity of which spelling is only a small part. The traditional inclusion of phonemic awareness in the pedagogy of initial reading is questioned throughout the conceptual framework and research, thus leading to the arguments for a revised model of language. The cognitive aspects of reading are explored within the theory of cognitive development advanced by Jean Piaget, because of its common application in South African schools. The literature reviewed with regard to this theory indicates a place for the theory within educational settings. Furthermore, the semiotic aspect of language and reading is explored; this investigation shows that present models of semiotics are inadequate, not only with respect to written language, but to all language. This review was followed by an intense investigation in which the researcher was a 'participant'. A great deal of data was collected by various methods in the course of three months. These data were processed, both quantitatively and qualitatively, and analyzed, yielding results that differed from the indications given in the conceptual framework. The role of Piagetian development and the value of independent school education is questioned. The pedagogy of reading is challenged, specifically with respect to the use of oral reading in the classroom and with respect to the teaching of reading skills. The investigation suggested certain recommendations to the research school, which can be extended beyond the confines of that specific setting. Most of the suggestions are aimed at teacher education and call for liberal uniformity in schools and the education' system which might bring about more learner-centred approaches to teaching initial reading.

IsiXhosa language is one of the first languages in sub-Saharan Africa to be reduced into writing. The first written texts in isiXhosa were produced by British missionaries in the Tyhume river valley as early as 1824. In spite of these early developments, there still remain today many inconsistencies and anomalies with regard to the standardization of isiXhosa orthography that require attention. This research focuses on the status quo of the current orthography of isiXhosa which is used in the writing of the selected texts which were published from 2000 to date. The research study investigates how these texts are written, that is, whether they are written according to the principles of the writing of this language as developed by the respective language boards or not. The reason for doing this is that this language has become one of the official languages of the Republic of South Africa. Therefore, in order for it to be read and written without any difficulty by anyone, as it is expected to be used as a medium of instruction even at tertiary level in the future, it should be written accurately and consistently. The study analyses a number of isiXhosa written texts including the following: (1) Selected literary texts which were published from 2000 to date. (2) Selected publications by government departments. (3) Selected translated texts. (4) Some of the newspapers and magazines which are currently in circulation in this language. (5) Some dictionaries of isiXhosa. (6) The updated isiXhosa Orthography as compiled by the PanSALB (2008). The aims of the study are outlined in Chapter 1. This chapter also provides the theoretical framework within which the research is located. Chapter 2 is about the theoretical perspectives on the development of the art of writing and orthography. The historical background, that is, the development of the art of writing and the general as well as the specific requirements of a good orthography are discussed. Chapters 3, 4 and 5 observe and analyse the orthographical features of some written documents of isiXhosa such as writing of capital letters, word division, usage of concords, etc. These three chapters also observe and analyse the various anomalies and inconsistencies in the spelling of isiXhosa words that were identified in the consulted texts. Chapter 6 is devoted to the conclusion and the recommendations.

Recent research in phonological awareness found a strong link between rhyming ability in preschool children and later reading achievement. The use of orthographic analogy, the ability to make inferences from similarities in spelling to similarities in sound, was proposed as the mechanism to explain this relationship (Goswami & Bryant, 1990). Literature was presented that suggested the need for further research. Four research questions were examined. First, can prereaders learn to read unfamiliar words on the basis of orthographic analogy after brief training with rhyming words? The evidence supported the view that they could. Second, will the ability to read words by orthographic analogy be enhanced by phonological training in onset and rime, and by the use of segmented text? The brief phonological training did not increase analogy word reading over the same training without it. However, using text segmented at the onset-rime boundary for training items did increase analogy word reading. Third, will reading by orthographic analogy vary according to the level of prereading skills (rhyming ability, phoneme identity, letter-sound knowledge)? The majority of children with high prereading skills learned to read analogy test words whereas most children with low prereading skills found the task too arduous. Fourth, will rhyming ability make an independent contribution to reading achievement? The results were equivocal. Rhyming ability did make an independent contribution to the number of trials taken to learn the training items. It did not when analogy word reading was the dependent variable. Phoneme identity accounted for most of the variance in analogy word reading. Further analyses found that the ability to identify the final phoneme was the best discriminator between children who learned to read analogy test words and those who did not. A possible explanation was that children used the final phoneme to determine the sound of the rime ending rather than the last two phonemes together. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate