Abstract This thesis explores the management of human resources (HR) in five star hotels located in a developing country (Malaysia). This study is particularly relevant to the hotel industry, known for its traditionally poor HR practices (e.g., a lack of employment security, training, and career development opportunity, low levels of employee involvement and an increasing number of casual employees who are paid hourly). These practices are often perceived as a solution to high labour costs and fluctuating demand prevalent in the hotel industry. However, it is often only "non-managerial" employees who are affected by poor HR practices, as more sophisticated approaches to HR practices are often taken with regard to managerial (strategic) level employees. HR practices system differentiation (HRPSD), or HR architecture, involves having more than one HR practices system within an organisation. HRPSD has been criticised in the hospitality management literature for the poor HR practices in the management of non-managerial employees, however despite this criticism, it is widely practiced by the industry. The continuation of HRPSD practices in the hotel industry suggests its importance to better understand, research and study. The aim of this research is to gain an understanding of HRPSD in a hotel industry context, and to better understand the immediate effects of such practices. While the existing literature concerning HR architecture in other industries provides some discussion of HRPSD, research and study of the concept focusing on the hotel industry is essential in providing a detailed explanation of the effect of this phenomenon, as HR practices between industries may vary. Central to this study, is an investigation of the nature of HRPSD, identification of HR intermediate outcomes, and the effects of HRPSD on hotel employees. Studying the effect of HRPSD on employees is important because employees are known to be a hotel organisations‟ most important resource. Developed based on the literature of SHRM and HR architecture, this study proposes a conceptual model that incorporates HRPSD in the SHRM model originally proposed by Schuler, Dowling, Smart, and Huber (1992). Guided by this model, this study seeks to answer the critical questions of “how organisations differentiate their HR practices systems” and “what are the corresponding HR intermediate outcomes?” A particular foci of this thesis relates to how the concept of a “strategic” (or managerial) job is conceptualised in the hotel industry, what the elements of HR practices systems in five-star hotels are, how and why hotel organisations differentiate their HR practices systems, what the HR intermediate outcomes of HRPSD are and how HRPSD relates to the identified HR intermediate outcomes. To answer these complex research issues, a multiple case research methodology is employed, utilising a series of in depth semi-structured interviews. This vi study focuses specifically on five-star hotels in Malaysia because HR practices vary among hotels of various sizes. The findings indicate a notable effect of HRPSD on employees‟ motivation, job satisfaction, organisational commitment and retention, and that excessive differentiation is not beneficial for a five star hotel. In this study only certain HR practices were found to be differentiated; selective staffing, extensive training, compensation and empowerment. HR practices that were applied to all employees without differentiation were a clear job description, orientation, employment security, objective performance appraisal, career development opportunity and effective communication. In addition, this study also provides a clear definition of the strategic job in the hotel industry, and demonstrates the importance of HR practices integration and the influence of internal and external environments on the formation of HR strategy. This research contributes to theory as well as hotel sector policy and practice. Theoretically, it has identified how HRPSD links to firm performance (in Malaysian five star hotels). In addition, it provides clear definitions and understanding of the strategic job concept as well as identification of HR practices system elements and their differentiation in five-star hotels. Furthermore, the theoretical framework developed can be useful for future quantitative studies which can test the model formulated in this study. For practitioners, the detailed examination of HR practices system elements and how they are differentiated may guide them in their future HR strategy formation.

Abstract This thesis explores the management of human resources (HR) in five star hotels located in a developing country (Malaysia). This study is particularly relevant to the hotel industry, known for its traditionally poor HR practices (e.g., a lack of employment security, training, and career development opportunity, low levels of employee involvement and an increasing number of casual employees who are paid hourly). These practices are often perceived as a solution to high labour costs and fluctuating demand prevalent in the hotel industry. However, it is often only "non-managerial" employees who are affected by poor HR practices, as more sophisticated approaches to HR practices are often taken with regard to managerial (strategic) level employees. HR practices system differentiation (HRPSD), or HR architecture, involves having more than one HR practices system within an organisation. HRPSD has been criticised in the hospitality management literature for the poor HR practices in the management of non-managerial employees, however despite this criticism, it is widely practiced by the industry. The continuation of HRPSD practices in the hotel industry suggests its importance to better understand, research and study. The aim of this research is to gain an understanding of HRPSD in a hotel industry context, and to better understand the immediate effects of such practices. While the existing literature concerning HR architecture in other industries provides some discussion of HRPSD, research and study of the concept focusing on the hotel industry is essential in providing a detailed explanation of the effect of this phenomenon, as HR practices between industries may vary. Central to this study, is an investigation of the nature of HRPSD, identification of HR intermediate outcomes, and the effects of HRPSD on hotel employees. Studying the effect of HRPSD on employees is important because employees are known to be a hotel organisations‟ most important resource. Developed based on the literature of SHRM and HR architecture, this study proposes a conceptual model that incorporates HRPSD in the SHRM model originally proposed by Schuler, Dowling, Smart, and Huber (1992). Guided by this model, this study seeks to answer the critical questions of “how organisations differentiate their HR practices systems” and “what are the corresponding HR intermediate outcomes?” A particular foci of this thesis relates to how the concept of a “strategic” (or managerial) job is conceptualised in the hotel industry, what the elements of HR practices systems in five-star hotels are, how and why hotel organisations differentiate their HR practices systems, what the HR intermediate outcomes of HRPSD are and how HRPSD relates to the identified HR intermediate outcomes. To answer these complex research issues, a multiple case research methodology is employed, utilising a series of in depth semi-structured interviews. This vi study focuses specifically on five-star hotels in Malaysia because HR practices vary among hotels of various sizes. The findings indicate a notable effect of HRPSD on employees‟ motivation, job satisfaction, organisational commitment and retention, and that excessive differentiation is not beneficial for a five star hotel. In this study only certain HR practices were found to be differentiated; selective staffing, extensive training, compensation and empowerment. HR practices that were applied to all employees without differentiation were a clear job description, orientation, employment security, objective performance appraisal, career development opportunity and effective communication. In addition, this study also provides a clear definition of the strategic job in the hotel industry, and demonstrates the importance of HR practices integration and the influence of internal and external environments on the formation of HR strategy. This research contributes to theory as well as hotel sector policy and practice. Theoretically, it has identified how HRPSD links to firm performance (in Malaysian five star hotels). In addition, it provides clear definitions and understanding of the strategic job concept as well as identification of HR practices system elements and their differentiation in five-star hotels. Furthermore, the theoretical framework developed can be useful for future quantitative studies which can test the model formulated in this study. For practitioners, the detailed examination of HR practices system elements and how they are differentiated may guide them in their future HR strategy formation.

Abstract This thesis explores the management of human resources (HR) in five star hotels located in a developing country (Malaysia). This study is particularly relevant to the hotel industry, known for its traditionally poor HR practices (e.g., a lack of employment security, training, and career development opportunity, low levels of employee involvement and an increasing number of casual employees who are paid hourly). These practices are often perceived as a solution to high labour costs and fluctuating demand prevalent in the hotel industry. However, it is often only "non-managerial" employees who are affected by poor HR practices, as more sophisticated approaches to HR practices are often taken with regard to managerial (strategic) level employees. HR practices system differentiation (HRPSD), or HR architecture, involves having more than one HR practices system within an organisation. HRPSD has been criticised in the hospitality management literature for the poor HR practices in the management of non-managerial employees, however despite this criticism, it is widely practiced by the industry. The continuation of HRPSD practices in the hotel industry suggests its importance to better understand, research and study. The aim of this research is to gain an understanding of HRPSD in a hotel industry context, and to better understand the immediate effects of such practices. While the existing literature concerning HR architecture in other industries provides some discussion of HRPSD, research and study of the concept focusing on the hotel industry is essential in providing a detailed explanation of the effect of this phenomenon, as HR practices between industries may vary. Central to this study, is an investigation of the nature of HRPSD, identification of HR intermediate outcomes, and the effects of HRPSD on hotel employees. Studying the effect of HRPSD on employees is important because employees are known to be a hotel organisations‟ most important resource. Developed based on the literature of SHRM and HR architecture, this study proposes a conceptual model that incorporates HRPSD in the SHRM model originally proposed by Schuler, Dowling, Smart, and Huber (1992). Guided by this model, this study seeks to answer the critical questions of “how organisations differentiate their HR practices systems” and “what are the corresponding HR intermediate outcomes?” A particular foci of this thesis relates to how the concept of a “strategic” (or managerial) job is conceptualised in the hotel industry, what the elements of HR practices systems in five-star hotels are, how and why hotel organisations differentiate their HR practices systems, what the HR intermediate outcomes of HRPSD are and how HRPSD relates to the identified HR intermediate outcomes. To answer these complex research issues, a multiple case research methodology is employed, utilising a series of in depth semi-structured interviews. This vi study focuses specifically on five-star hotels in Malaysia because HR practices vary among hotels of various sizes. The findings indicate a notable effect of HRPSD on employees‟ motivation, job satisfaction, organisational commitment and retention, and that excessive differentiation is not beneficial for a five star hotel. In this study only certain HR practices were found to be differentiated; selective staffing, extensive training, compensation and empowerment. HR practices that were applied to all employees without differentiation were a clear job description, orientation, employment security, objective performance appraisal, career development opportunity and effective communication. In addition, this study also provides a clear definition of the strategic job in the hotel industry, and demonstrates the importance of HR practices integration and the influence of internal and external environments on the formation of HR strategy. This research contributes to theory as well as hotel sector policy and practice. Theoretically, it has identified how HRPSD links to firm performance (in Malaysian five star hotels). In addition, it provides clear definitions and understanding of the strategic job concept as well as identification of HR practices system elements and their differentiation in five-star hotels. Furthermore, the theoretical framework developed can be useful for future quantitative studies which can test the model formulated in this study. For practitioners, the detailed examination of HR practices system elements and how they are differentiated may guide them in their future HR strategy formation.

Abstract This thesis explores the management of human resources (HR) in five star hotels located in a developing country (Malaysia). This study is particularly relevant to the hotel industry, known for its traditionally poor HR practices (e.g., a lack of employment security, training, and career development opportunity, low levels of employee involvement and an increasing number of casual employees who are paid hourly). These practices are often perceived as a solution to high labour costs and fluctuating demand prevalent in the hotel industry. However, it is often only "non-managerial" employees who are affected by poor HR practices, as more sophisticated approaches to HR practices are often taken with regard to managerial (strategic) level employees. HR practices system differentiation (HRPSD), or HR architecture, involves having more than one HR practices system within an organisation. HRPSD has been criticised in the hospitality management literature for the poor HR practices in the management of non-managerial employees, however despite this criticism, it is widely practiced by the industry. The continuation of HRPSD practices in the hotel industry suggests its importance to better understand, research and study. The aim of this research is to gain an understanding of HRPSD in a hotel industry context, and to better understand the immediate effects of such practices. While the existing literature concerning HR architecture in other industries provides some discussion of HRPSD, research and study of the concept focusing on the hotel industry is essential in providing a detailed explanation of the effect of this phenomenon, as HR practices between industries may vary. Central to this study, is an investigation of the nature of HRPSD, identification of HR intermediate outcomes, and the effects of HRPSD on hotel employees. Studying the effect of HRPSD on employees is important because employees are known to be a hotel organisations‟ most important resource. Developed based on the literature of SHRM and HR architecture, this study proposes a conceptual model that incorporates HRPSD in the SHRM model originally proposed by Schuler, Dowling, Smart, and Huber (1992). Guided by this model, this study seeks to answer the critical questions of “how organisations differentiate their HR practices systems” and “what are the corresponding HR intermediate outcomes?” A particular foci of this thesis relates to how the concept of a “strategic” (or managerial) job is conceptualised in the hotel industry, what the elements of HR practices systems in five-star hotels are, how and why hotel organisations differentiate their HR practices systems, what the HR intermediate outcomes of HRPSD are and how HRPSD relates to the identified HR intermediate outcomes. To answer these complex research issues, a multiple case research methodology is employed, utilising a series of in depth semi-structured interviews. This vi study focuses specifically on five-star hotels in Malaysia because HR practices vary among hotels of various sizes. The findings indicate a notable effect of HRPSD on employees‟ motivation, job satisfaction, organisational commitment and retention, and that excessive differentiation is not beneficial for a five star hotel. In this study only certain HR practices were found to be differentiated; selective staffing, extensive training, compensation and empowerment. HR practices that were applied to all employees without differentiation were a clear job description, orientation, employment security, objective performance appraisal, career development opportunity and effective communication. In addition, this study also provides a clear definition of the strategic job in the hotel industry, and demonstrates the importance of HR practices integration and the influence of internal and external environments on the formation of HR strategy. This research contributes to theory as well as hotel sector policy and practice. Theoretically, it has identified how HRPSD links to firm performance (in Malaysian five star hotels). In addition, it provides clear definitions and understanding of the strategic job concept as well as identification of HR practices system elements and their differentiation in five-star hotels. Furthermore, the theoretical framework developed can be useful for future quantitative studies which can test the model formulated in this study. For practitioners, the detailed examination of HR practices system elements and how they are differentiated may guide them in their future HR strategy formation.

Abstract This thesis explores the management of human resources (HR) in five star hotels located in a developing country (Malaysia). This study is particularly relevant to the hotel industry, known for its traditionally poor HR practices (e.g., a lack of employment security, training, and career development opportunity, low levels of employee involvement and an increasing number of casual employees who are paid hourly). These practices are often perceived as a solution to high labour costs and fluctuating demand prevalent in the hotel industry. However, it is often only "non-managerial" employees who are affected by poor HR practices, as more sophisticated approaches to HR practices are often taken with regard to managerial (strategic) level employees. HR practices system differentiation (HRPSD), or HR architecture, involves having more than one HR practices system within an organisation. HRPSD has been criticised in the hospitality management literature for the poor HR practices in the management of non-managerial employees, however despite this criticism, it is widely practiced by the industry. The continuation of HRPSD practices in the hotel industry suggests its importance to better understand, research and study. The aim of this research is to gain an understanding of HRPSD in a hotel industry context, and to better understand the immediate effects of such practices. While the existing literature concerning HR architecture in other industries provides some discussion of HRPSD, research and study of the concept focusing on the hotel industry is essential in providing a detailed explanation of the effect of this phenomenon, as HR practices between industries may vary. Central to this study, is an investigation of the nature of HRPSD, identification of HR intermediate outcomes, and the effects of HRPSD on hotel employees. Studying the effect of HRPSD on employees is important because employees are known to be a hotel organisations‟ most important resource. Developed based on the literature of SHRM and HR architecture, this study proposes a conceptual model that incorporates HRPSD in the SHRM model originally proposed by Schuler, Dowling, Smart, and Huber (1992). Guided by this model, this study seeks to answer the critical questions of “how organisations differentiate their HR practices systems” and “what are the corresponding HR intermediate outcomes?” A particular foci of this thesis relates to how the concept of a “strategic” (or managerial) job is conceptualised in the hotel industry, what the elements of HR practices systems in five-star hotels are, how and why hotel organisations differentiate their HR practices systems, what the HR intermediate outcomes of HRPSD are and how HRPSD relates to the identified HR intermediate outcomes. To answer these complex research issues, a multiple case research methodology is employed, utilising a series of in depth semi-structured interviews. This vi study focuses specifically on five-star hotels in Malaysia because HR practices vary among hotels of various sizes. The findings indicate a notable effect of HRPSD on employees‟ motivation, job satisfaction, organisational commitment and retention, and that excessive differentiation is not beneficial for a five star hotel. In this study only certain HR practices were found to be differentiated; selective staffing, extensive training, compensation and empowerment. HR practices that were applied to all employees without differentiation were a clear job description, orientation, employment security, objective performance appraisal, career development opportunity and effective communication. In addition, this study also provides a clear definition of the strategic job in the hotel industry, and demonstrates the importance of HR practices integration and the influence of internal and external environments on the formation of HR strategy. This research contributes to theory as well as hotel sector policy and practice. Theoretically, it has identified how HRPSD links to firm performance (in Malaysian five star hotels). In addition, it provides clear definitions and understanding of the strategic job concept as well as identification of HR practices system elements and their differentiation in five-star hotels. Furthermore, the theoretical framework developed can be useful for future quantitative studies which can test the model formulated in this study. For practitioners, the detailed examination of HR practices system elements and how they are differentiated may guide them in their future HR strategy formation.

Abstract This thesis explores the management of human resources (HR) in five star hotels located in a developing country (Malaysia). This study is particularly relevant to the hotel industry, known for its traditionally poor HR practices (e.g., a lack of employment security, training, and career development opportunity, low levels of employee involvement and an increasing number of casual employees who are paid hourly). These practices are often perceived as a solution to high labour costs and fluctuating demand prevalent in the hotel industry. However, it is often only "non-managerial" employees who are affected by poor HR practices, as more sophisticated approaches to HR practices are often taken with regard to managerial (strategic) level employees. HR practices system differentiation (HRPSD), or HR architecture, involves having more than one HR practices system within an organisation. HRPSD has been criticised in the hospitality management literature for the poor HR practices in the management of non-managerial employees, however despite this criticism, it is widely practiced by the industry. The continuation of HRPSD practices in the hotel industry suggests its importance to better understand, research and study. The aim of this research is to gain an understanding of HRPSD in a hotel industry context, and to better understand the immediate effects of such practices. While the existing literature concerning HR architecture in other industries provides some discussion of HRPSD, research and study of the concept focusing on the hotel industry is essential in providing a detailed explanation of the effect of this phenomenon, as HR practices between industries may vary. Central to this study, is an investigation of the nature of HRPSD, identification of HR intermediate outcomes, and the effects of HRPSD on hotel employees. Studying the effect of HRPSD on employees is important because employees are known to be a hotel organisations‟ most important resource. Developed based on the literature of SHRM and HR architecture, this study proposes a conceptual model that incorporates HRPSD in the SHRM model originally proposed by Schuler, Dowling, Smart, and Huber (1992). Guided by this model, this study seeks to answer the critical questions of “how organisations differentiate their HR practices systems” and “what are the corresponding HR intermediate outcomes?” A particular foci of this thesis relates to how the concept of a “strategic” (or managerial) job is conceptualised in the hotel industry, what the elements of HR practices systems in five-star hotels are, how and why hotel organisations differentiate their HR practices systems, what the HR intermediate outcomes of HRPSD are and how HRPSD relates to the identified HR intermediate outcomes. To answer these complex research issues, a multiple case research methodology is employed, utilising a series of in depth semi-structured interviews. This vi study focuses specifically on five-star hotels in Malaysia because HR practices vary among hotels of various sizes. The findings indicate a notable effect of HRPSD on employees‟ motivation, job satisfaction, organisational commitment and retention, and that excessive differentiation is not beneficial for a five star hotel. In this study only certain HR practices were found to be differentiated; selective staffing, extensive training, compensation and empowerment. HR practices that were applied to all employees without differentiation were a clear job description, orientation, employment security, objective performance appraisal, career development opportunity and effective communication. In addition, this study also provides a clear definition of the strategic job in the hotel industry, and demonstrates the importance of HR practices integration and the influence of internal and external environments on the formation of HR strategy. This research contributes to theory as well as hotel sector policy and practice. Theoretically, it has identified how HRPSD links to firm performance (in Malaysian five star hotels). In addition, it provides clear definitions and understanding of the strategic job concept as well as identification of HR practices system elements and their differentiation in five-star hotels. Furthermore, the theoretical framework developed can be useful for future quantitative studies which can test the model formulated in this study. For practitioners, the detailed examination of HR practices system elements and how they are differentiated may guide them in their future HR strategy formation.

In New Zealand, approximately 10% of births are considered premature, that is less than 37 weeks gestation. With advances in medical technology, young infants are surviving gestation periods as few as 23 weeks. It is expected that many of these severely premature infants will demonstrate some problem in their academic, or cognitive function including language functioning. It is agreed that children who are born severely premature often present with language problems, the nature of the difficulties are not clear. Research examining language abilities that involve cognitive functions such as inference generation have demonstrated that children born prematurely exhibit difficulties with phonologic short-term memory and executive function. Language tasks such as inference understanding require children to integrate real-world knowledge with the linguistic information to generate and produce language that is more complex. The aim of this study was to discover if the language of children born severely premature differs from that of language-age matched peers. This study examined high-level language abilities of school-age children born severely prematurely, specifically, language tasks that involved executive functions including working memory, story inferencing, and recognising absurdities. Six children who were born less than 28 weeks gestation participated in this study. Their results on the above measures were compared to a language-aged matched comparison group, determined by performance on a standardised test. It was hypothesised that the children born severely premature would not differ from their language-age matched peers on measures of general language ability but differences would exist on measures of language processing and inferencing. The findings overall showed little difference between the preterm group and their language-age matched peers on measures except for the measure of chronological age. Although no group difference was found for the measure of working memory, a larger variance on this measure was observed in the preterm group.

Recent interest in identifying and measuring health outcomes represents an advance in our understanding of how health care for individuals should be evaluated. However, the concept of health outcomes has mainly focussed on improvements in health status. Non-health outcomes of health care may also be important to patients. In this thesis, four tasks were undertaken with the aim of identifying non-health outcomes and establishing the extent of their relevance and importance to patients. First, the illness experience literature was reviewed to identify potential non-health outcomes. Seven categories of non-health outcomes were identified: information, being treated with dignity, being able to trust the health care provider, having distress recognised and supported, participating in decision making, legitimation and reassurance. Second, to gain an in-depth understanding of these concepts, topic-specific literature was reviewed and synthesised. Third, in order to confirm how relevant and important the concepts were to patients, a qualitative study was conducted with each of two different groups of health service users. Broadly, patients considered that all the non-health concepts were relevant, although the extent to which they were important varied. Fourth, to test the relative importance of the seven concepts, a Stated Preference Discrete Choice experiment in the context of general practice was conducted. This study showed that most people thought their GP demonstrated behaviour likely to result in the production of non-health outcomes. The results showed that although all the non-health outcomes were, to some extent, preferred by respondents, trust was most important, followed by legitimation and recognition of and support for emotional distress. Once again, these results point to the importance of context in the evaluation of health care from the patient's perspective. While still being perceived as positive aspects of health care, the provision of information and acting autonomously or participating in decisions about their health care were the non-health outcomes considered least important by patients

Adult students (n = 211) from a Private Training Establishment located in a low socio-economic area of Counties Manukau, New Zealand, were assessed for intent to achieve and actual outcome. Each year in New Zealand approximately 25% of students leaving school do so with no qualifications. It is estimated that in the Counties Manukau Region there are 77,000 adults with no educational qualifications, impacting on earning ability and on self-esteem. Failure rate at tertiary education is high, with 38% of under 18 year olds not achieving, and this figure worsens with age. The cost to New Zealand of having people not in employment, not in education and not in training is estimated to be close to $1.0 billion per year and in Counties Manukau the cost of youth unemployment is between $55 and $73 million per annum. This study applied The Theory of Planned Behaviour to assess intent to achieve, and was expanded to include a self-esteem component (Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale, 1965). The Theory of Planned Behaviour sufficiently predicted intent, and was significantly improved with the self-esteem component. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale successfully predicted outcome, however findings need to be interpreted with caution. The initial self-esteem levels (M=20.59), whilst just above the accepted criteria (M=20.00) validate other studies indicating that New Zealand has an over-all low level of self-esteem compared with other similar countries. These findings indicate opportunity for future research into the prediction of outcome and ability of learning establishments to mitigate risk of non-achievement for the adult learner. They also support the further investigation of the low level of self-esteem as evidenced in this study.

Adult students (n = 211) from a Private Training Establishment located in a low socio-economic area of Counties Manukau, New Zealand, were assessed for intent to achieve and actual outcome. Each year in New Zealand approximately 25% of students leaving school do so with no qualifications. It is estimated that in the Counties Manukau Region there are 77,000 adults with no educational qualifications, impacting on earning ability and on self-esteem. Failure rate at tertiary education is high, with 38% of under 18 year olds not achieving, and this figure worsens with age. The cost to New Zealand of having people not in employment, not in education and not in training is estimated to be close to $1.0 billion per year and in Counties Manukau the cost of youth unemployment is between $55 and $73 million per annum. This study applied The Theory of Planned Behaviour to assess intent to achieve, and was expanded to include a self-esteem component (Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale, 1965). The Theory of Planned Behaviour sufficiently predicted intent, and was significantly improved with the self-esteem component. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale successfully predicted outcome, however findings need to be interpreted with caution. The initial self-esteem levels (M=20.59), whilst just above the accepted criteria (M=20.00) validate other studies indicating that New Zealand has an over-all low level of self-esteem compared with other similar countries. These findings indicate opportunity for future research into the prediction of outcome and ability of learning establishments to mitigate risk of non-achievement for the adult learner. They also support the further investigation of the low level of self-esteem as evidenced in this study.