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Statistical analyses of measurements were used to evaluate congenital asymmetry and activity-related change in 100 pairs of humeri and 112 pairs of femora. Bone pairs in samples from the Nary Rose and an earlier medieval site in Norwich were subdivided into age categories and their archaeological groups for analysis. Internal bone dimensions were determined from radiographs and compared with those of a modern group of divers. Muscle insertions were ranked and femoral morphological traits were recorded. Differences were tested at the p<0.05 level of confidence. Congenital asymmetry was accepted from earlier work for maximum length of the humerus. Asymmetries decreased with age in the humerus and to a lesser extent in the femur. The humerus was shown to have significant right-sided dominance while the femur was more symmetric. Accepted methods of measuring femoral torsion were demonstrated to be inadequate. Femoral morphological traits were shown to be affected by environment. Significant results obtained from new measurements may be attributable to patterns of activity In the Nary Rose sample. These individuals were significantly taller and larger than those of the Norwich sample. Selection, diet and activity are discussed as possible explanations for these increases. Statistical comparison of compatible groups may reveal patterns of activity, if the occupations in the groups are known.

The adoption of an agricultural lifestyle had profound implications for nutritional ecology, health and behaviour of human populations. The goal of this project was to generate information about the health status and disease patterns of early farming populations from central and southern Africa. Skeletal material was obtained from various 'Iron Age' sites in South Africa, Ingombe Ilede from Zambia, and Sanga and Katoto from the Democratic Republic of Congo. Palaeopathological analyses was done through the examination of non-specific stress indicators that included cribra orbitalia/porotic hyperostosis, Harris lines, linear enamel hypoplasias, subperiosteal bone lesions and dental diseases. The evidence from palaeopathology indicated that the environments played a major role in causing differences observed at micro-scale level. It is suggested that the health problems of these agricultural peoples are a result of their sedentary lifestyle and aggregation, which promoted maintenance and spread of infectious diseases; as well as high carbohydrate diets and dependence on a few main foodstuffs that affected their iron levels. The individuals from the forest region were less healthy than those in the dry or wet savanna zones. Also, the impact of the stress experienced by these societies was not sufficient to cause stunted growth and thus did not affect their terminal heights. The complex relationship between the environment, socio-cultural factors and biology has shown that subsistence economy only influences a fraction of human behaviour, health and well being. The results of this study argue that generalisations about prehistoric farming peoples cannot be made, until further research work is done.

No / Although the study of palaeopathology is less developed for avian bones than for human or other vertebrate remains, skeletal pathologies have been noted in the bones of a range of bird species of all periods, from many parts of the world. Such studies make use of x-radiographs as an aid to differential diagnosis, to image features of the pathology that may not be apparent to the unassisted eye. Bird bones are often thin yet highly mineralised, and offer a particular challenge to the radiographer. Conventional medical or veterinary radiographic techniques are not optimal for ancient material, yet are commonly applied. Here we show that the quality of the x-ray image can be greatly enhanced by applying quite simple techniques. Furthermore, digitisation of the x-radiograph allows commercially available image manipulation software to be used to add further enhancement and to explore specific details of the image. We demonstrate the use of these techniques in the investigation of a number of avian palaeopathology specimens.

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A introdução da agricultura tem sido reconhecida como uma das mais importantes mudanças no modo de vida da humanidade. Indicadores osteológicos e dentais são utilizados pela arqueologia para avaliar mudanças no padrão subsistencial associado com alterações na organização social. No entanto, a multiplicidade de meio-ambientes e a grande variabilidade dos processos culturais, tornam a reconstrução de subsistência um assunto complexo. Assim, ainda não é clara a caracterização dos perfis paleopatológicos dentários de populações com estratégias mistas de obtenção de recursos alimentares. Neste trabalho avaliam-se, desde uma perspectiva comparativa, mudanças e continuidades de indicadores paleopatológicos orais (cárie dental, doença periodontal e padrões de desgaste dental) de quatro populações assentadas no litoral dos Andes Centrais. Três das populações pertencem ao Período Formativo (2500-1 a.C), durante o qual se acredita ter ocorrido o início da agricultura e a complexificação social. A quarta população assume o papel de grupo controle, uma vez que pertence ao Período de Desenvolvimentos Regionais Tardios (PDRT,1000-1440 d.C), caracterizado pelo auge do desenvolvimento agrícola e uma organização social hierarquizada. Estes quatro grupos prestam-se bem a testes de hipótese sobre qual o impacto que mudanças alimentares causam na dentição, pois a subsistência do primeiro e do último deles é bem conhecida. Assim, o grupo mais antigo constitui-se de pescadores-horticultores, enquanto o último é formado por agricultores plenos. Os demais grupos apresentam subsistência intermediária. Testam-se seis hipóteses, que, com o aumento do desenvolvimento agrícola acarretariam em: 1) um incremento na freqüência e prevalência de cárie e AMTL; 2) um aumento na velocidade de desenvolvimento das lesões de cárie; 3) uma mudança na localização de cáries (de oclusais para extra-oclusais); 4) um incremento na prevalência e gravidade da doença periodontal; 5) uma diminuição do desgaste dental e 6) a presença de hábitos de mascar coca e consumir chicha no período mais tardio. Como não há diferenças significativas entre as freqüências de lesões cariosas e AMTL entre os grupos, rejeita-se a hipótese 1. Por outro lado, a profundidade da cárie aumenta, assim como se verifica uma mudança de cáries oclusais para extra-oclusais. Entretanto, hipóteses 2 e 3 só podem ser corroboradas levando-se em consideração o desgaste dental. A hipótese 4 foi parcialmente confirmada e finalmente, as hipóteses 5 e 6 foram totalmente confirmadas. Dentre os indicadores estudados, as cáries de dentina e as extra-oclusais são os que refletem de maneira mais confiável a cariogenicidade. Os modelos paleopatológicos inferidos para cada grupo acusam diferenças significativas entre os períodos iniciais (com dietas em trânsito à agricultura) e os dois mais tardios (com dietas predominantemente compostas de vegetais cultivados). Os resultados obtidos são discutidos do ponto de vista biológico e sociocultural, com apoio em dados arqueológicos, etnohistóricos e etnográficos. As diferenças são atribuídas principalmente à mudanças na tecnologia de preparo de alimentos e à introdução de novos produtos e hábitos. / Agriculture has been recognized as one of the most important factors that changed human life style. Osteological and dental markers have been used to evaluate subsistence shifts, paleodiets, technological development and social organization. However, the main problem that persists in reconstructing subsistence in ancient populations is the multiplicity of environments and the great variability of cultural processes. Consequently, the characterization of the dental paleopathological profiles of populations with mixed diet needs further investigation. This thesis aims at comparing the oral pathology among four pre-Columbian groups with different degrees of agricultural and socio-cultural development, but comparable ecological conditions who lived at the coastal desert of Peru. Three of the groups belong to the Formative period (2500-1 BC.), a critical time for understanding the development of agriculture and social complexity, while the fourth group is assigned to the Late Regional Development period (1000-1470 AD), when agriculture had its apogee and society was highly stratified. These groups represent a unique possibility to test hypotheses on the impact of dietary changes on the dentition, since the subsistence pattern of the earliest and latest periods are well known. Accordingly, the first were fisher-horticulturalists, whereas the last one subsisted on a well established irrigation agriculture. The remaining groups presented intermediate paleodietary profiles. Six hypotheses were tested, according to which an increase in agricultural development would lead to: 1) an increment of the frequency and prevalence of carious lesions and antemortem tooth loss (AMTL); 2) an increase in the caries depth; 3) a shift from occlusal to extra-occlusal caries; 4) an increase in the prevalence and severity of periodontal disease; 5) a decrease in dental wear, and, finally 6) the presence of coca chewing and chicha drinking habits in the most recent period. As there are no significant differences between the caries and AMTL frequencies among the groups, hypothesis 1 is rejected. On the other hand, caries depth increases, and there is a shift from occlusal to extra-occlusal caries. Hypotheses 2 and 3, thus, are corroborated, but only if considering dental wear. Finally, hypotheses 4 is partially confirmed, and hypotheses 5 and 6 are completely confirmed. Among the markers studied, dentin and extra-occlusal caries best reflect cariogenicity. The paleopathological profiles inferred for each group show considerable differences between the two initial periods (with incipient agriculture) and the two later periods (with diets based on domesticated plants). The differences seen are attributed mainly to shifts in preparation techniques and the introduction of new, more cariogenic foodstuffs and habits. The results obtained are discussed in the light of biological, sociocultural, archaeological and ethnographic evidences.

The palaeopathology of very young individuals offers valuable information for the study of maternal, fetal, perinatal, neonatal and infant health in past populations. The primary aims of this research are to differentiate skeletal pathology from normal appearance in very young individuals, to assess the relationship between the palaeopathology of very young individuals and maternal physiological stress, and to evaluate the ways in which past communities responded to perinatal, infant and maternal mortality. The palaeopathology described below is determined through non-destructive methods analysis of skeletal remains and involves macroscopic examination and metrical analysis. The research sample is drawn from seven archaeological collections (Ardreigh, n=87; Baron Court Farm, n=55; Çatalhöyük, n=86; Gussage All Saints, n=35; Wetwang Slack, n=36; Wharram Percy, n=83; Yewden villa, n=56), two reference collections (Royal College of London, n=199; Scheuer, n=29), one of which also includes archaeological material, and five modern perinatal pathology cases. The identified skeletal pathology is considerable and ranges from minor morphological variation through to agenesis, and trauma associated with obstetric complications. There is strong evidence in the form and severity of palaeopathology for compromised maternal condition during pregnancy. Skeletal pathology was evident in two thirds of the young individuals analysed with the majority of these falling into the perinatal and neonatal age categories. There is evidence for population specific skeletal pathology, particularly with respect to non-metric variants such as intrajugular bridging and vertebral border shifting. Several causes of mortality were positively identified and many individuals display skeletal pathology indicative of a significantly compromised physiological state during gestation and early infancy. Maternal health prior to and during pregnancy is demonstrated to have had a considerable impact on the development and growth of their offspring. The palaeopathology of the past populations studied revealed that they experienced undernutrition and malnutrition, exposure to infectious diseases, accidental and intentional physical trauma and periods of social disruption. These communities also had access to supportive treatment and intervention that is evidenced in the numerous cases of healed and healing skeletal pathology. The response of the living towards the death of mothers and very young individuals in the past populations studied is revealed through their funerary treatment of these individuals and provides insight into the broader socio-cultural and personal contributions to burial practices in each community.

A recently excavated bonebed in the Kerosene Creek Member of the Eocene Rundle Formation has yielded an abundance of crocodilian material. Fossils representing nearly all osteological elements, both cranial and postcranial, have been recovered and described. The described cranial remains are clearly indicative of a new species, Kambara taraina. This new species belongs to the earliest known genus of an endemic Australasian group, the Mekosuchinae, a group which radiated in Australasia during the mid to late Cenozoic and utilized various morphologies to exploit a range of ecologic niches. The early Cenozoic remains poorly known with respect to vertebrates and so this discovery of a new Eocene form is significant, showcasing a large sample of well-preserved material. Cranial material reveals functional divergence among the species of early mekosuchines, reflecting subtle partitioning of feeding strategies. The enlarged insertion area in the caudoventral part of the surangular suggests an increase in adductor mass resulting in a greater bite force. Bite marks in a large chelid plastron, attributable to K. taraina, support this inference. K. taraina is further distinguished from other Kambara species by the possession of a fully interlocking dentition and a decreased number of alveoli. Analysis of the postcranial anatomy suggests an overall generalist crocodilian body plan. However, aspects of the tarsal elements suggest that K. taraina may have been more adept at either terrestrial or shallow water ‘bottom-walking’ locomotion than other generalist aquatic crocodilians. Due to the completeness and size of the sample, description of the Kerosene Creek Member postcranial elements provides a standard reference text for mekosuchine postcranial anatomy, setting a precedent for consideration of postcranial anatomy in a field where little previous work has been done. Functional morphologic analyses of both the cranium and postcranium of K. taraina along with its palaeoenvironmental context suggest that this crocodile fed foraged along the shallow lake margins, operating as an opportunistic ambush predator. Macroscopic and radiographic analyses have revealed pathologic deformities in some elements demonstrating the presence of infection, neoplasm, and fractures that likely resulted from intraspecific fighting in K. taraina. A severely deformed left humerus has been shown to have suffered chronic osteomyelitis, a condition that, although well-documented in the fossil record, has not been previously reported for Australasian fossil crocodiles. A left fibula possesses evidence of neoplastic growth, tentatively attributed to a vascular tumour. The legion is expansile, exhibiting cortical thinning and formed coarse trabeculae in the medullary cavity. This is the first report of neoplasm in a fossil crocodilian from the southern hemisphere, and the first report of a bony vascular tumour in a crocodile. Thorough description of nearly all osteological elements has allowed a comprehensive scoring of K. taraina for cladistic analysis. Preliminary analyses supported the allocation of Mekosuchinae to within Crocodylidae. However, resolution was insufficient to determine taxon relationships within Mekosuchinae and requires a far more thorough analysis. This preliminary analysis demonstrates the inadequacy of current mekosuchine phylogenetics and the necessity for greater attention to be given to the lack of transparency in published cladistic analyses.

This research engages in a bioarchaeological analysis of two medieval Danish sites using combined microscopic and macroscopic methods in order to investigate three objectives. The first was to consider the relationship between childhood stress and adult health through the joint consideration of microscopic enamel defects and adult health indicators. Given the context of these populations over a period of history characterized by changing climate and socioeconomic conditions, punctuated by famine and plague, this research also sought to examine temporal patterns in health and stress. Given the increased urbanization over the medieval period, the final objective was to consider health patterns between rural and urban populations. The results showed that the number of stress events did have an impact on later life mortality, and that there was differential expression of this relationship between males and females and between surface and internal enamel defects. A statistically significant decrease in stature was apparent after 1350 A.D. as well as an insignificant increase in tuberculosis and treponema, but an insignificant increase in age at death over time. The inter-site comparison showed higher rates of infectious disease at the rural site of Sejet, with tuberculosis in particular being significantly higher in females at Sejet. Mean age at death was also significantly lower at Sejet for the study sample, but a consideration of the broader cemetery sample showed no significant site differences, suggesting that this might be a sampling phenomenon. These patterns likely reflect the complex nature of the rural and urban interaction during this period, but also emphasize the need for further sampling. This research points to the complex relationship between stress and health and outlines the importance of developing more comprehensive etiological models and operational definitions for identifying stress indicators in dental enamel.

In 1999, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) initiated the development of the Nandoni Dam. A component of this project was the relocation of seven rural villages, which include Mulenzhe, Budeli, Dididi, Mpego, Machivandihala Agricultural College, Mutoti and Tshilangoma. Upon request from the community, DWAF had to provide for the exhumation of approximately 1,000 graves dating to the 20th century. A comprehensive analysis of the 160 skeletons (118 adults and 42 juveniles) found in association with these graves was performed, and a description of the health and disease patterns of these rural communities was provided. A secondary objective of this study was to assess the biological affinity of the Venda by examining both craniometric and odontometric traits. A demographic profile of these communities revealed a high incidence of death in children less than 5 years of age and medium ranged adult mortality that peaked between 45 and 55 years of age. This profile is similar to other contemporary black South African communities, and has been associated with poverty, poor living conditions and poor sanitation. When compared to Iron Age populations, it was noted that a dramatic decline in child mortality and a slight increase in adult longevity has occurred in black South African populations within the past 800 years. This may be associated with a reduction in the number of children born per mother and general improvements in lifestyle and living conditions. Medical researchers suggest that infectious disease and parasite infestation were high in rural Venda communities during the 20th century. Despite the high pathogen load in the environment, skeletal markers of non-specific diseases in this study were found to be minimal. This may be attributed to the administering of medication at both hospitals and local clinics, which would have arrested the development of diseases caused by bacteria and parasites. Overall, it appears that medicine improved health for the individual, but it was relatively ineffective on reducing the number of pathogens in the general environment. Dental health was relatively good for these communities. Tooth decay was more common in Venda than other agricultural based populations and may be related to the increased consumption of western foods such as refined maize and sugar. The results of uni- and multivariate statistical analyses on the craniometric and odontometric traits are indicative of a stronger relationship between the Venda and South African Negroid populations than the East Africa groups. This supports the idea of local development of the Venda people in the Soutpansberg region. These results are also in agreement with other studies that have shown similarities in cranial and dental morphology of South African Negroids with the Venda. Due to the small sample size from K2, it was not possible to establish a direct relationship between this group and the Venda. However, it is prudent to say that both groups can be classified as South African Negroids. / Thesis (DPhil)-University of Pretoria, 2005 / Anatomy / unrestricted