From the 1650s and corresponding with a trade in African slaves, the livelihood, health and life expectancy of indigenous groups were reported to decline as many Zimbabwean settlements changed their identities due to European influence. In this study, human skeletal remains from three archaeological sites from northern Zimbabwe were investigated to compare the health status of the people that it represents, pre-and post-European contact, to ascertain whether this was indeed the case. The Monk’s Kop (A.D. 1270-1285) and Ashford Farms sites (A.D. 1330-1440) date back to a period prior to European contact, whereas the Dambarare site (A.D. 1630-1693) represents a population consisting of both Africans and the Europeans they were in contact with. This study led to the re-discovery of the Monk’s Kop archaeological site and in particular indicated that the remains most probably resemble the high social status members of the society. In the Monk’s Kop’s skeletal collection (n =43), 14% of individuals presented with signs of skeletal pathology while the corresponding figure was 43% in the Ashford Farms individuals (n=7). The Dambarare sample comprised a total of 40 individuals (both African and European ancestry) of which 43% of the Africans had visible signs of skeletal pathology and included the southernmost case reported for trephination in Africa. Although the pre-European contact populations of Monk’s Kop and Ashford Farms therefore seemed to have suffered less (28% combined average) from pathological conditions in comparison to that of the Dambarare individuals of African ancestry (43%), the difference was not statistically significant. Although most preversus post-contact investigations report that the biological and cultural effects on the native population was catastrophic to their health, it seems that the first Europeans (particularly the Portuguese) that came into contact with the previously isolated indigenous northern Zimbabwean population, had a minor effect on the people that they interacted with during the 17th century. The Europeans from Dambarare, in contrast, showed many skeletal signs that reflect a less healthy population which, most probably, was due to both the poor socio-economic conditions in their home country and the impact of a long voyage to Africa. It should be kept in mind that the skeletons may not have represented all of the once living populations. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2015 / Anatomy / PhD / Unrestricted

A introdução da agricultura tem sido reconhecida como uma das mais importantes mudanças no modo de vida da humanidade. Indicadores osteológicos e dentais são utilizados pela arqueologia para avaliar mudanças no padrão subsistencial associado com alterações na organização social. No entanto, a multiplicidade de meio-ambientes e a grande variabilidade dos processos culturais, tornam a reconstrução de subsistência um assunto complexo. Assim, ainda não é clara a caracterização dos perfis paleopatológicos dentários de populações com estratégias mistas de obtenção de recursos alimentares. Neste trabalho avaliam-se, desde uma perspectiva comparativa, mudanças e continuidades de indicadores paleopatológicos orais (cárie dental, doença periodontal e padrões de desgaste dental) de quatro populações assentadas no litoral dos Andes Centrais. Três das populações pertencem ao Período Formativo (2500-1 a.C), durante o qual se acredita ter ocorrido o início da agricultura e a complexificação social. A quarta população assume o papel de grupo controle, uma vez que pertence ao Período de Desenvolvimentos Regionais Tardios (PDRT,1000-1440 d.C), caracterizado pelo auge do desenvolvimento agrícola e uma organização social hierarquizada. Estes quatro grupos prestam-se bem a testes de hipótese sobre qual o impacto que mudanças alimentares causam na dentição, pois a subsistência do primeiro e do último deles é bem conhecida. Assim, o grupo mais antigo constitui-se de pescadores-horticultores, enquanto o último é formado por agricultores plenos. Os demais grupos apresentam subsistência intermediária. Testam-se seis hipóteses, que, com o aumento do desenvolvimento agrícola acarretariam em: 1) um incremento na freqüência e prevalência de cárie e AMTL; 2) um aumento na velocidade de desenvolvimento das lesões de cárie; 3) uma mudança na localização de cáries (de oclusais para extra-oclusais); 4) um incremento na prevalência e gravidade da doença periodontal; 5) uma diminuição do desgaste dental e 6) a presença de hábitos de mascar coca e consumir chicha no período mais tardio. Como não há diferenças significativas entre as freqüências de lesões cariosas e AMTL entre os grupos, rejeita-se a hipótese 1. Por outro lado, a profundidade da cárie aumenta, assim como se verifica uma mudança de cáries oclusais para extra-oclusais. Entretanto, hipóteses 2 e 3 só podem ser corroboradas levando-se em consideração o desgaste dental. A hipótese 4 foi parcialmente confirmada e finalmente, as hipóteses 5 e 6 foram totalmente confirmadas. Dentre os indicadores estudados, as cáries de dentina e as extra-oclusais são os que refletem de maneira mais confiável a cariogenicidade. Os modelos paleopatológicos inferidos para cada grupo acusam diferenças significativas entre os períodos iniciais (com dietas em trânsito à agricultura) e os dois mais tardios (com dietas predominantemente compostas de vegetais cultivados). Os resultados obtidos são discutidos do ponto de vista biológico e sociocultural, com apoio em dados arqueológicos, etnohistóricos e etnográficos. As diferenças são atribuídas principalmente à mudanças na tecnologia de preparo de alimentos e à introdução de novos produtos e hábitos. / Agriculture has been recognized as one of the most important factors that changed human life style. Osteological and dental markers have been used to evaluate subsistence shifts, paleodiets, technological development and social organization. However, the main problem that persists in reconstructing subsistence in ancient populations is the multiplicity of environments and the great variability of cultural processes. Consequently, the characterization of the dental paleopathological profiles of populations with mixed diet needs further investigation. This thesis aims at comparing the oral pathology among four pre-Columbian groups with different degrees of agricultural and socio-cultural development, but comparable ecological conditions who lived at the coastal desert of Peru. Three of the groups belong to the Formative period (2500-1 BC.), a critical time for understanding the development of agriculture and social complexity, while the fourth group is assigned to the Late Regional Development period (1000-1470 AD), when agriculture had its apogee and society was highly stratified. These groups represent a unique possibility to test hypotheses on the impact of dietary changes on the dentition, since the subsistence pattern of the earliest and latest periods are well known. Accordingly, the first were fisher-horticulturalists, whereas the last one subsisted on a well established irrigation agriculture. The remaining groups presented intermediate paleodietary profiles. Six hypotheses were tested, according to which an increase in agricultural development would lead to: 1) an increment of the frequency and prevalence of carious lesions and antemortem tooth loss (AMTL); 2) an increase in the caries depth; 3) a shift from occlusal to extra-occlusal caries; 4) an increase in the prevalence and severity of periodontal disease; 5) a decrease in dental wear, and, finally 6) the presence of coca chewing and chicha drinking habits in the most recent period. As there are no significant differences between the caries and AMTL frequencies among the groups, hypothesis 1 is rejected. On the other hand, caries depth increases, and there is a shift from occlusal to extra-occlusal caries. Hypotheses 2 and 3, thus, are corroborated, but only if considering dental wear. Finally, hypotheses 4 is partially confirmed, and hypotheses 5 and 6 are completely confirmed. Among the markers studied, dentin and extra-occlusal caries best reflect cariogenicity. The paleopathological profiles inferred for each group show considerable differences between the two initial periods (with incipient agriculture) and the two later periods (with diets based on domesticated plants). The differences seen are attributed mainly to shifts in preparation techniques and the introduction of new, more cariogenic foodstuffs and habits. The results obtained are discussed in the light of biological, sociocultural, archaeological and ethnographic evidences.

Since the arrival of the Dutch colonists in the Cape, Khoesan populations were subjected to severe political and economical marginalization and often fell prey to racial conflict and genocide. These circumstances persisted until the early 20th century, during which an astonishing number of Khoesan skeletons were transported from South Africa to various locations in Europe, as at the time, different institutions competed to obtain these valuable remains. Due to the above mentioned circumstances, Southern African Khoesan groups suffered from nutritional stress, as well as substandard living conditions. Such living conditions probably did not allow for health care and medical benefits at the time. It will therefore be interesting to evaluate the health status of this group through palaeopathological assessment. Skeletal remains housed in two different European institutions were studied. The sample comprises of 140 specimens from the Rudolf Pöch Skeletal Collection in Vienna, Austria and 15 specimens from the Musée de l’Homme in Paris, France. These individuals represent both sexes and were aged between newborn and 75 years, with 54 individual being younger than 20 years of age and 101 being adults. The aim was to analyse all skeletal lesions. Results indicated high levels of typical disease conditions associated with groups under stress, such as periostitis, cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis. Treponemal disease, rickets, osteoarthritis and trauma were also encountered amongst other more specific indicators of health and disease. This study provided additional knowledge on the health status and lives of the Khoesan people during the turn of the 20th century, as well as focused new awareness on a group of severely mistreated individuals. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / Anatomy / unrestricted

Bioarchaeologists and palaeopathologists have recently turned their attention towards one critical aspect of the study of the history of disease: health-related caregiving. In response, an approach, the bioarchaeology of care, and, within it, the web-based Index of Care (IoC) have been developed to enable the identification and interpretation of past caregiving. Here, we apply the IoC to Burial 86, a young adult (18–25 years) female from the late Mississippian period, Dallas cultural phase Holliston Mills site (40HW11; ca. ad 1348–1535), TN. Burial 86 exhibits pathologies specific to treponematosis. They also exhibit a suite of pathologies indicative of physical impairment, including a varus angular deformity in the right tibia that is potentially the result of a malaligned pathological fracture. Following the IoC, we determine that Burial 86 probably experienced moderate clinical impacts on several domains (e.g., musculoskeletal system) with various functional impacts on essential activities of daily living. This means that Burial 86 likely had a disability and likely received caregiving, though it is impossible to determine if the care was efficacious. That care was provided likely reflected the community of Holliston Mills' more egalitarian socio-political structure, which was unusual for the late Mississippian. It may also reflect Burial 86's agency, the presence of adequate resources at the site, as indicated by high frequencies of high status mortuary artifacts, or a combination of these factors. The mortuary program for Burial 86 does not indicate that they were marked as being different—in status or other social categories—than other community members. This study highlights how bioarchaeological evidence can be used to explore the downstream effects of chronic infections, such as treponematosis, throughout the body and across the life course, and the opportunities for health-related caregiving in past societies that these processes can potentially create.

Yes / We examined six skeletons from mediaeval contexts from two sites in England for the presence of Mycobacterium leprae DNA, each of the skeletons displaying osteological indicators of leprosy. Polymerase chain reactions directed at the species-specific RLEP multicopy sequence produced positive results with three skeletons, these being among those with the clearest osteological signs of leprosy. Following in-solution hybridization capture, sufficient sequence reads were obtained to cover >70% of the M. leprae genomes from these three skeletons, with a mean read depth of 4–10×. Two skeletons from a mediaeval hospital in Chichester, UK, dating to the 14th–17th centuries AD, contained M. leprae strains of subtype 3I, which has previously been reported in mediaeval England. The third skeleton, from a churchyard cemetery at Raunds Furnells, UK, dating to the 10th to mid-12th centuries AD, carried subtype 3K, which has been recorded at 7th–13th century AD sites in Turkey, Hungary and Denmark, but not previously in Britain. We suggest that travellers to the Holy Land might have been responsible for the transmission of subtype 3K from southeast Europe to Britain. / Funded by a studentship awarded by Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA) to A.K. and by the University of Bradford and the University of Manchester.

This thesis explores identity in early mediaeval Scotland (ca 800-1300AD) using biological and burial deposition data. During this period Scotland was developing as a unified kingdom. The Norse, Scots, and Anglo-Saxons battled for political power. The Saxon and Irish Churches were pressuring for superiority over each other and over local beliefs. Many research areas in bioarchaeology have moved away from the more simplistic processual approach after a renewed understanding of the complexities of human existence. However, this newer methodology has not been sufficiently applied to early mediaeval Scottish studies. Common doxa still permeates the discipline despite the lack of critical assessment. Doxa tends to separate the early mediaeval Scottish world into the circumscribed categories of Norse (or ‘Viking’) and native, Christian and pagan. These commonly accepted site designations regarding ethnicity and religion were used to assess three hundred and twenty-one individuals from 21 sites. These individuals were analysed macroscopically for age, sex, stature and limb ratios, craniometrics, joint degeneration and disease, musculo-skeletal stress markers, dental pathologies, and overall health and disease. This data was compared to the available documentation for the sites considering site location, body position, cemetery type, grave enclosures, and grave furnishings. Statistical and qualitative methods were used to compare the data. Results suggest that there are slight differences within the population that may suggest some legitimacy for common site designations; however, the overall conclusion implies caution in the use of oversimplified categorising and a generally egalitarian view of identity for the early mediaeval people in Scotland.

Yes / Radiography has frequently been used during palaeopathological research, and plays an important role in the differential diagnosis of many diseases, including Paget¿s disease and carcinomas. Traditionally, radiographs were taken in hospitals with clinical equipment. However industrial radiography techniques have gradually become more commonly used, as their superior image quality and improved potential for diagnoses become recognised. The introduction of radiographic scanners has facilitated the digitisation of these images for dissemination and publication. However this is not all that radiographic digitisation can offer the researcher. Digital image processing (DIP) allows the researcher to focus on an area of interest and to adjust the brightness and contrast of the captured image. This allows the investigation of areas of high radio-opacity and radio-lucency, providing detailed images of the internal structures of bone and pathological lesions undetectable by the naked eye. In addition 3D effects, edge enhancement and sharpening algorithms, available through commonly used image processing software, can be very effective in enhancing the visibility of specific features. This paper will reveal how radiographic digitisation and manipulation can enhance radiographic images of palaeopathological lesions and potentially further our understanding of the bony manifestations of disease.

This bachelor thesis covers two executional sites on the island of Gotland with focus on the palaepathology among the executed individuals. The aim is to see which pathological changes that occured most often and if they have any correlation between these and these individuals socioeconomic status. To achieve this the author has examined the bones from Galgberget to identify apparent pathological changes on long bones, vertebrates, maxillaries and mandibles. I have also compared the bones from Galgberget with previous analyses from the other executional site in Grötlingbo parish. The most common pathological change that became identified were osteophytes, arthritis and a couple of oral pathologies like calculus and cavities. Osteophytes and arthritis do share a comparability since they both are derived from osteoarthritis which is a denegerative joint disease. Calculus and cavities also share smiliarities, due to the fact that cavities is the first stage before it becomes calculus. No other pathological similarities were found among the two sites. Although the appearances of Schmorl’s nodes were significantly large among the bone assembly from Galgberget. Schmorl’s nodes is a vertebral lesion that may occur in all ages and have different causes. Other common pathological changes identified from Galgberget were skeletal anomalies and enthesopathies. Smiliar to Schmorls nodes, enthesopathy have different causes and often show in a relation to heavy physical work. It can be concluded that the presence of Schmorl’s nodes, skeletal anomalies, enthesopathy and osteophytes do share an equivalence with each other, when you think about how you get these pathological changes in life. With further studies regarding the material from Galgberget, the view of the people who were executed there may have a real potential to change.

This thesis explores identity in early mediaeval Scotland (ca 800-1300AD) using biological and burial deposition data. During this period Scotland was developing as a unified kingdom. The Norse, Scots, and Anglo-Saxons battled for political power. The Saxon and Irish Churches were pressuring for superiority over each other and over local beliefs. Many research areas in bioarchaeology have moved away from the more simplistic processual approach after a renewed understanding of the complexities of human existence. However, this newer methodology has not been sufficiently applied to early mediaeval Scottish studies. Common doxa still permeates the discipline despite the lack of critical assessment. Doxa tends to separate the early mediaeval Scottish world into the circumscribed categories of Norse (or ‘Viking’) and native, Christian and pagan. These commonly accepted site designations regarding ethnicity and religion were used to assess three hundred and twenty-one individuals from 21 sites. These individuals were analysed macroscopically for age, sex, stature and limb ratios, craniometrics, joint degeneration and disease, musculo-skeletal stress markers, dental pathologies, and overall health and disease. This data was compared to the available documentation for the sites considering site location, body position, cemetery type, grave enclosures, and grave furnishings. Statistical and qualitative methods were used to compare the data. Results suggest that there are slight differences within the population that may suggest some legitimacy for common site designations; however, the overall conclusion implies caution in the use of oversimplified categorising and a generally egalitarian view of identity for the early mediaeval people in Scotland.

The complex relationship between human societies and the environment has become a thriving field of research over the past three decades. The contribution of human osteoarchaeology to exploring this relationship, however, has been rather limited. Two unpublished late medieval skeletal assemblages unearthed in the historical centres of Bucharest and Braşov (located in southern and north-central Romania respectively) seemed ideal choices for investigating the impact of substantial climatic and environmental changes that took place worldwide between the 14th and the 18th century AD. As witnessed by medieval artistic and documentary sources, this unsettled climate was mirrored by human populations with social and political instability, epidemics, famine, but also through the rise of new cultural movements. The analysis of over 600 individuals (a minimum number of 421 individuals from Bucharest and 206 from Braşov) was carried out to: 1) Provide a thorough osteological analysis, and compare and test statistically the collected data to reconstruct demographic and pathological patterning; 2) Identify ‘skeletal environmental markers’, i.e. possible indicators of the effect of climatic shifts on the human body; 3) Cross-reference osteological, archaeological, historical and climatological data in order to present a robust biocultural assessment of the impact of environmental and historical events on the Romanian population during the Middle Ages. The identification of low life-expectancy, higher mortality rates for children and young adults and general high morbidity levels were in line with other studies on medieval populations. However, evidence for a high prevalence of specific physiological and psychological stress markers was observed in these two geographically, culturally and economically different urban communities. As a strong mortality- and morbidity-shaping factor, the detrimental effect of climate anomalies is one of the main explanations for such findings, and is supported by medieval historical sources and recent advances in Romanian climatological studies. Despite some limitations (i.e. incomplete chronological information for most of the burial contexts, minimal local historical sources, lack of funding for isotopic analyses, and time constraints), the results of the present study have offered a new perspective on the relationship between Romanian medieval populations and their living environment, and have shown the enormous potential of interdisciplinary bioarchaeological research in Romania.