Esta pesquisa tem por objetivo investigar os fatores que motivaram a ruptura da trajetória de desenvolvimento da pecuária de corte brasileira, suas características históricas e os elementos que caracterizam o papel da Ciência neste processo. A escolha da bovinocultura de corte como tema de pesquisa deve-se ao fato de o Brasil apresentar grande competitividade na produção de carne, posicionando-se como um dos maiores produtores de carne bovina do mundo e um dos maiores exportadores mundiais. A motivação para a realização deste estudo está na importância que a geração de conhecimento e tecnologias tem exercido sobre a bovinocultura de corte quanto à sua busca por incrementos em eficiência e produtividade. Apesar da evolução da ciência nesta área possibilitar que a atividade fosse uma das mais competitivas do mundo em custos, volume e atendesse diferentes demandas, algumas barreiras são conferidas para que um cenário de baixa eficiência, despadronização dos produtos e deficiência na sanidade animal se perpetue na realidade brasileira, prejudicando sua posição comercial nacional e mundial. Através da reconstituição da história da formação dessa atividade como econômica e sua validação realizada por entrevistas semiestruturadas, procurou-se estabelecer as dependências evolutivas desencadeadas pelas escolhas de suas trajetórias passadas. A constituição da história da ciência e de seus marcos históricos também foi realizada através do levantamento de periódicos, simpósios, livros e artigos publicados desde 1860 até 2011, que determinaram as tecnologias formadoras das trajetórias de produção baseadas em ciência para este produto. A partir da linha temporal, econômica e tecnológica, foram realizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas junto aos diversos atores envolvidos nesta cadeia objetivando encontrar seus gargalos, visando à investigação sobre as barreiras do desenvolvimento. / This research aims to investigate the factors that led to the disruption of the developmental trajectory of Brazilian beef cattle, its historic features and elements that characterize the role of science in the process. The choice of beef cattle as a research topic is due to the fact that Brazil provides good competition in meat production, positioning itself as one of the largest beef producer in the world and one of the largest exporters. The motivation for this study is the importance that generation of knowledge and technology has had on the cattle as its quest for increases in efficiency and productivity. Despite the evolution of science in this area providing that the activity was one of the world\'s most competitive on cost, volume and would meet different demands, some barriers are conferred to a scenario of low efficiency, lack of standardization of the products and disabilities in animal health. These barriers perpetuate the Brazilian reality, damaging its commercial position nationally and globally. The reconstruction of the history of this formation as economic activity and its validation performed by semi-structured interviews sought to establish the evolutionary dependencies triggered by the choices of their past trajectories. The constitution of the history of science and its landmarks were also conducted by surveying journals, symposia, books and articles published from 1860 to 2011, which determined the technologies that were building trajectories of production based on science for this product. From this timeline, economic and technological, semi-structured interviews in order to research on the barriers of development were held with the various stakeholders involved in this chain trying to find its bottlenecks.

1. Contextual outline of the PhD Research Climate change is today often seen as one of the most challenging issue that our civilisation will have to face during the 21st century. This is especially so now that the most recent scientific data have led to the conclusion that the globally averaged net effect of human activities since 1750 has been one of warming (IPCC 2007, p. 5) and that continued greenhouse gas emissions at or above current rates would cause further warming (IPCC, 2007 p. 13). This unequivocal link between climate change and anthropogenic activities requires an urgent, world-wide shift towards a low carbon economy (STERN 2006 p. iv) and coordinated policies and measures to manage this transition. The climate issue is undoubtedly a typical policy question and as such, is considered amenable to economic scrutiny. Indeed, in today’s world economics is inevitable when it comes to arbitrages in the field of policy making. From the very beginning of international talks on climate change, up until the most recent discussions on a post-Kyoto international framework, economic arguments have turned out to be crucial elements of the analysis that shapes policy responses to the climate threat. This can be illustrated by the prominent role that economics has played in the different analyses produced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to assess the impact of climate change on society. The starting point and the core idea of this PhD research is the long-held observation that the threat of climate change calls for a change of climate in economics. Borrowing from the jargon used in climate policy, adaptation measures could also usefully target the academic discipline of economics. Given that inherent characteristics of the climate problem (e.g. complexity, irreversibility, deep uncertainty, etc.) challenge core economic assumptions, mainstream economic theory does not appear as appropriately equipped to deal with this crucial issue. This makes that new assumptions and analyses are needed in economics in order to comprehend and respond to the problem of climate change. In parallel (and without environmental considerations being specifically the driving force to it), the mainstream model in economics has also long been (and still is) strongly criticised and disputed by numerous scholars - both from within and outside the field of economics. For the sake of functionality, these criticisms - whether they relate to theoretical inconsistencies or are empirically-based - can be subsumed as all challenging part of the Cartesian/Newtonian legacy of economics. This legacy can be shown to have led to a model imprinted with what could be called “mechanistic reductionism”. The mechanistic side refers to the Homo oeconomicus construct while reductionism refers to the quest for micro-foundations materialised with the representative agent hypothesis. These two hypotheses constitute, together with the conjecture of perfect markets, the building blocks of the framework of general equilibrium economics. Even though it is functional for the purpose of this work to present them separately, the flaws of economics in dealing with the specificities of the climate issue are not considered independent from the fundamental objections made to the theoretical framework of mainstream economics. The former only make the latter seem more pregnant while the current failure of traditional climate policies informed by mainstream economics render the need for complementary approaches more urgent. 2. Overview of the approach and its main insights for climate policy Starting from this observation, the main objective of this PhD is thus to assess the implications for climate policy that arise from adopting an alternative analytical economic framework. The stance is that the coupling of insights from the framework of evolutionary economics with the perspective of ecological economics provides a promising way forward both theoretically as well as on a more applied basis with respect to a better comprehension of the socioeconomic aspects related to the climate problem. As claimed in van den Bergh (2007, p. 521), ecological economics and evolutionary economics “share many characteristics and can be combined in a fruitful way" - which renders the coupling approach both legitimate and promising. The choice of an evolutionary line of thought initially stems from its core characteristic: given its focus on innovation and system change it provides a useful approach to start with for assessing and managing the needed transition towards a low carbon economy. Besides, its shift of focus towards a better understanding of economic dynamics together with its departure from the perfect rationality hypothesis renders evolutionary economics a suitable theoretical complement for designing environmental policies. The notions of path-dependence and lock-in can be seen as the core elements from this PhD research. They arise from adopting a framework which is founded on a different view of individual rationality and that allows for richer and more complex causalities to be accounted for. In a quest for surmounting the above-mentioned problem of reductionism, our framework builds on the idea of ‘multi-level selection’. This means that our analytical framework should be able to accommodate not only for upward but also for downward causation, without giving analytical priority to any level over the other. One crucial implication of such a framework is that the notion of circularity becomes the core dynamic, highlighting the importance of historicity, feedbacks and emergent properties. More precisely, the added value of the perspective adopted in this PhD research is that it highlights the role played by inertia and path-dependence. Obviously, it is essential to have a good understanding of the underlying causes of that inertia prior to devising on how to enforce a change. Providing a clear picture of the socio-economic processes at play in shaping socio-technical systems is thus a necessary first step in order to usefully complement policy-making in the field of energy and climate change. In providing an analytical basis for this important diagnosis to be performed, the use of the evolutionary framework sheds a new light on the transition towards low-carbon socio-technical systems. The objective is to suggest strategies that could prove efficient in triggering the needed transition such as it has been the case in past “lock-in” stories. Most notably, the evolutionary framework allows us to depict the presence of two sources of inertia (i.e at the levels of individuals through “habits” and at the level of socio-technical systems) that mutually reinforce each other in a path-dependent manner. Within the broad perspective on path dependence and lock-in, this PhD research has first sketched the implications for climate policy of applying the concept of ‘technological lock-in’ in a systemic perspective. We then investigated in more details the notion of habits. This is important as the ‘behavioural’ part of the lock-in process, although explicitly acknowledged in the pioneer work of Paul David (David, 1985, p. 336), has been neglected in most of subsequent analyses. Throughout this study, the notion of habits has been studied at both the theoretical and applied level of analysis as well as from an empirical perspective. As shown in the first chapters of the PhD, the advantage of our approach is that it can incorporate theories that so far have been presented opposite, partial and incomplete perspectives. For instance, it is shown that our evolutionary approach not only is able to provide explanation to some of the puzzling questions in economics (e.g. the problem of strong reciprocity displayed by individual in anonymous one-shot situations) but also is very helpful in bringing a complementary explanation with respect to the famous debate on the ‘no-regret’ emission reduction potential which agitates the experts of climate policy. An emission reduction potential is said to be "no regret" when the costs of implementing a measure are more than offset by the benefits it generates such as, for instance, reduced energy bills. In explaining why individuals do not spontaneously implement those highly profitable energy-efficient investments , it appears that most prior analyses have neglected the importance of non-economic obstacle. They are often referred to as “barriers” and partly relate to the ‘bounded rationality’ of economic agent. As developed in the different chapters of this PhD research, the framework of evolutionary economics is very useful in that it is able to provide a two-fold account (i.e. relying on both individual and socio-technical sources of inertia) of this limited rationality that prevent individuals to act as purely optimising agents. Bearing this context in mind, the concept of habits, as defined and developed in this study, is essential in analysing the determinants of energy consumption. Indeed, this concept sheds an insightful light on the puzzling question of why energy consumption keeps rising even though there is an evident increase of awareness and concern about energy-related environmental issues such as climate change. Indeed, if we subscribe to the idea that energy-consuming behaviours are often guided by habits and that deeply ingrained habits can become “counter-intentional”, it then follows that people may often display “locked-in” practices in their daily energy consumption behaviour. This hypothesis has been assessed in our empirical analysis whose results show how the presence of strong energy-consuming habitual practices can reduce the effectiveness of economic incentives such as energy subsidies. One additional delicate factor that appears crucial for our purpose is that habits are not fully conscious forms of behaviours. This makes that individuals do not really see habits as a problem given that it is viewed as easily changed. In sum, based on our evolutionary account of the situation, it follows that, to be more efficient, climate policies would have to both shift the incumbent carbon-based socio-technical systems (for it to shape decisions towards a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions) and also deconstruct habits that this same socio-technical has forged with time (as increased environmental awareness and intentions formulated accordingly are not sufficient in the presence of strong habits). Accordingly, decision-makers should design measures (e.g. commitment strategies, niche management, etc.) that, as explained in this research, specifically target those change-resisting factors and their key features. This is essential as these factors tend to reduce the efficiency of traditional instruments. Micro-level interventions are thus needed as much as macro-level ones. For instance, it is often the case that external improvements of energy efficiency do not lead to lower energy consumption due to the rebound effect arising from unchanged energy-consuming habits. Bearing this in mind and building on the insights from the evolutionary approach, policy-makers should go beyond the mere subsidisation of technologies. They should instead create conditions enabling the use of the multi-layered, cumulative and self-reinforcing character of economic change highlighted by evolutionary analyses. This means supporting both social and physical technologies with the aim of influencing the selection environment so that only the low-carbon technologies and practices will survive. Mentioned references: David, P. A. (1985), Clio and the economics of QWERTY, American Economic Review 75/2: 332–337. IPCC, 2007, ‘Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis’, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 996 pp. Stern, N., 2006, ‘Stern Review: The economics of Climate Change’, Report to the UK Prime Minister and Chancellor, London, 575 p. (www.sternreview.org.uk) van den Bergh, J.C.J.M., 2007, ‘Evolutionary thinking in environmental economics’, Journal of Evolutionary Economics 17(5): 521-549.

This paper presents a theoretical framework along "Classical" lines in which Schumpeter's concept of "Creative Response" is linked to a theory of induced innovation and the concept of technological regimes. We devote particular attention to the role of indivisibilities between factors of production. On the basis of this framework, we study the adoption of early information technologies, such as typewriters, calculators or Hollerith machines in US manufacturing in the period between 1870 and 1930. We show how the presence of a distinct bias in technical change in US manufacturing led to the opening of a window of opportunity for early information technologies, and how the presence of this bias influenced the technological search and adoption process of firms and how this found its final reflection in the rules and heuristics of the new regime. (author's abstract) / Series: Working Papers Series "Growth and Employment in Europe: Sustainability and Competitiveness"

L'industrie automobile tient une place à part dans l'histoire du capitalisme, dont elle détermine jusqu'à l'appellation de sa dernière grande période : le « fordisme ». Depuis la fin du 20ème siècle, elle se trouve confrontée à une double contrainte environnementale : l'épuisement annoncée des carburants fossiles et la lutte contre les pollutions, atmosphériques notamment. Le transport routier représente en effet 20% des émissions de GES. L'objectif de ce travail est d'analyser la réaction de cette industrie pour internaliser cette double contrainte, en se centrant sur la dimension « innovation ». La grille théorique proposée par Schumpeter et prolongée par les auteurs évolutionnistes est mobilisée pour tester l'hypothèse suivante : l'industrie automobile est en train d'amorcer un nouveau sentier de dépendance pour s'émanciper de cette double contrainte. Dès lors, le passage au moteur hybride, lu comme une éco-innovation de rupture, marque la fin du « lock in » sur le sentier précédant caractérisé par la dépendance au moteur à combustion interne. / Automotive industry has a special place in the history of the capitalism, of which it determines up to the name of its last great period: “Fordism”. It has to face double environmental constraints since the end of the 20th century: predicted exhaustion of world fossil fuel resources and the control of pollution, particularly atmospheric. Road transport accounts for 20% of the emission of greenhouse gases. The purpose of this work is to analyse how this industry will react to internalize that double constraint by focusing on “innovation”. The theoretical framework proposed by Schumpeter and prolonged by the evolutionary authors is mobilized to test the following assumption: automotive industry is starting a new path of dependence to become emancipated from this double constraint. Consequently, the transition to the hybrid engine, as an “breakthrough eco-innovation”, points out the end of the “lock in” on the previous path characterized by the dependence upon the internal combustion engine.

A partir da abertura comercial brasileira em 1990, verifica-se a ascensão de processos comerciais dinâmicos trazidos pela globalização. Assim, o fenômeno da multiterritorialidade surge como alternativa a estudos como o da internacionalização de empresas. Para atuar neste sentido, as organizações deparam-se com espaços físicos e simbólicos, de onde emergem os elementos de mesma ordem. Porém, poucos são os estudos acerca do fenômeno multiterritorial, tampouco sobre os elementos físicos e simbólicos. Além disso, tendo em vista que o estudo trata de uma trajetória histórica verificada através da análise de path dependence, estes elementos estarão presentes nas ações referentes a uma parceria entre organizações, as quais serão observadas através da ótica de seus respectivos stakeholders. A revisão teórica, portanto, focou-se na relação existente entre path dependence, e o desdobramento de um processo de projeção histórica sobre a multiterritorialidade, bem como acerca dos elementos físicos e simbólicos que a cercam. Deste modo, a teoria dos stakeholders veio auxiliar na categorização dos diferentes tipos de grupos ou indivíduos envolvidos, podendo afetar ou ser afetados, pelas organizações. Foi elaborado um estudo de caso diante da parceria de uma empresa multinacional à jusante da cadeia coureiro-calçadista, com uma empresa agente de exportação de calçados, da cidade brasileira de Novo Hamburgo, localizada no polo regional calçadista do Vale do Rio dos Sinos. Os dados primários foram coletados por meio de entrevistas semi-estruturadas com stakeholders das duas empresas. Os principais dados secundários das empresas foram, respectivamente, na empresa multinacional, o website, o código de conduta na produção de calçados e apresentações documentais sobre a mesma, ao passo em que na empresa agente, o conteúdo pertinente foi alcançado através de publicações próprias e documentos oficiais, como o manual de qualidade empresarial. Os resultados apontam que a estrutura de análise da presente pesquisa foi um mecanismo válido para a identificação, observação e, estudo dos elementos físicos e simbólicos na trajetória multiterritorial da parceria internacional. Evidenciam também, os elementos que receberam mais atenção dos entrevistados, são eles: mudanças de sistemas, mudanças de processos, mudanças de práticas, mudanças de estilos de gestão, padronização, adesão a mudanças, interesses econômicos, abertura de mercados, declínio de mercado, impactos econômicos, impactos sociais e redução de operações. Estes elementos regem o fenômeno multiterritorial. Além disso, um resultado relevante encontrado na pesquisa foi a predominância de elementos de origem simbólica, o que deve ser ressaltado diante de pesquisas que não consideram tais elementos com tamanha importância na comparação com elementos materiais ou físicos. Na análise entre stakeholders do Brasil e EUA, os elementos físicos tiveram razoável importância e os simbólicos, muita importância, para ambos os países. Já na análise entre diferentes categorias de stakeholders, foi dada razoável importância aos elementos físicos por todos eles e, muita importância para os simbólicos por stakeholders e stakekeepers; contudo, para os stakewatchers, os elementos simbólicos são apenas importantes. Assim, a presente pesquisa poderá servir como alternativa para estudos que envolvam parcerias organizacionais e mudança territorial. Percebe-se a oportunidade obtida para o desenvolvimento exploratório acerca de elementos simbólicos que permeiam esses temas. Portanto, pode-se analisar ainda mais a percepção de stakeholders com relação a estes elementos simbólicos. / Since the opening of the brazilian international trade in 1990, there is the rise of dynamic business processes introduced by globalization. Thus, the phenomenon of multi-territoriality is an alternative to studies such as the internationalization of companies. To act in this way, organizations are faced with physical and symbolic spaces, from which emerge the elements of the same order. However, there are few studies about the multi-territory phenomenon, nor on the physical and symbolic elements. Moreover, considering that the study is reflected in a historical trajectory verified by path dependence analysis, these elements will make part of actions related to a partnership between organizations, which will be seen through the perspective of their respective stakeholders. The theoretical review, therefore, focused on the relationship between path dependence, and the development of a historical projection process about multi-territoriality, and about the physical and symbolic elements that surround it. Thus, the theory of stakeholders came assist in categorizing the different types of groups or individuals involved, which may affect or be affected by organizations. A case study was prepared for analyzing the partnership of a multinational in downstream of the leather footwear chain, with a business agent for export of shoes, located in the brazilian city of Novo Hamburgo, in the regional shoes cluster of Vale do Rio dos Sinos. Primary data were collected through semi-structured interviews with stakeholders of both companies. The main secondary data of the companies were, respectively, in the multinational company, the website, the code of conduct in the production of footwear, and the documentary presentations, while that in the agent company, the content has been achieved through its own publications and official documents, such as the corporate quality manual. The results indicate that the structure of analysis of this research was a valid mechanism for identification, observation and study of physical and symbolic elements in the multi-territory trajectory of international partnership. Also highlight the elements that received the most attention from respondents, they are: changes of systems, changes of processes, changes of practices, changes of management styles, standardization, adherence to changes, economic interests, opening markets, declining of market, economic impacts, social impacts and reduction of operations. These elements guide the multi-territorial phenomenon. Moreover, a relevant result found in the research was the predominance of symbolic origin’s elements, what should be emphasized since there are researches that do not consider such elements with this importance in comparison with material or physical elements. Analyzing stakeholders from Brazil and USA, the physical elements were considered reasonably important, and the symbolic very important, for both countries. In the analysis among different categories of stakeholders, has been given reasonable importance to the physical elements by all of them, and the symbolic elements were considered very important by stakeholders and stakekeepers; although, for stakewatchers, the symbolic elements are merely important. Thus, this research may serve as an alternative to studies involving organizational partnerships and territorial change. This can be seen as the opportunity for exploratory development on the symbolic elements that permeate these themes. Therefore, the perception of stakeholders can be even more analyzed, regarding these symbolic elements.

Considerando que transformações no sistema tributário indicam processos de construção do Estado, o presente trabalho dirige-se aos seguintes problemas: quais os determinantes sociais e políticos do sistema tributário paraguaio desde a transição democrática, 1989? Qual a influência dos principais setores econômicos? Por que tem sido particularmente difícil extrair impostos das elites privadas no país? De forma a responder tais questões, o trabalho está organizado da seguinte maneira. Primeiro, traz uma periodização da construção do Estado no Paraguai a fim de contextualizar o processo em andamento. Segundo, apresenta indicadores para ilustrar a conjuntura socioeconômica, institucional e fiscal do país. E terceiro, analisa a trajetória das reformas tributárias implementadas no Paraguai desde 1989 a partir de categorias da literatura de sociologia fiscal. O estudo sugere a existência de estruturas de dependência de trajetória no sistema tributário paraguaio, conformadas pela ação política de elites agrárias com alto grau de coesão e dominância. Essas elites têm conseguido bloquear reformas que possibilitariam transformações em termos de capacidade e progressividade do sistema tributário, além de perfurar sua universalidade. / Assuming that changes in the tax system indicate state-building processes, this paper addresses the following questions: what are the social and political determinants of the Paraguayan tax system since the beginning of the democratic transition in 1989? What is the influence of the country’s main economic sectors? Why have state authorities in Paraguay been so unsuccessful to impose taxes on its private elites? To best answer these questions, the study is organized as follows. First, it provides a periodization of state-building in Paraguay so as to contextualize the ongoing process. Second, it illustrates the country’s socioeconomic, institutional and fiscal situation through the display of indicators. Third, it draws upon scholarship on fiscal sociology to provide analysis of the trajectory of tax reforms implemented in Paraguay since 1989. The study suggests the existence of a path dependent tax structure that was shaped by political action of highly cohesive and dominant agrarian elites. These elites have been able to veto reforms that would allow changes in levels of tax capacity and tax progressivity, besides having perforated tax universality.

A partir da abertura comercial brasileira em 1990, verifica-se a ascensão de processos comerciais dinâmicos trazidos pela globalização. Assim, o fenômeno da multiterritorialidade surge como alternativa a estudos como o da internacionalização de empresas. Para atuar neste sentido, as organizações deparam-se com espaços físicos e simbólicos, de onde emergem os elementos de mesma ordem. Porém, poucos são os estudos acerca do fenômeno multiterritorial, tampouco sobre os elementos físicos e simbólicos. Além disso, tendo em vista que o estudo trata de uma trajetória histórica verificada através da análise de path dependence, estes elementos estarão presentes nas ações referentes a uma parceria entre organizações, as quais serão observadas através da ótica de seus respectivos stakeholders. A revisão teórica, portanto, focou-se na relação existente entre path dependence, e o desdobramento de um processo de projeção histórica sobre a multiterritorialidade, bem como acerca dos elementos físicos e simbólicos que a cercam. Deste modo, a teoria dos stakeholders veio auxiliar na categorização dos diferentes tipos de grupos ou indivíduos envolvidos, podendo afetar ou ser afetados, pelas organizações. Foi elaborado um estudo de caso diante da parceria de uma empresa multinacional à jusante da cadeia coureiro-calçadista, com uma empresa agente de exportação de calçados, da cidade brasileira de Novo Hamburgo, localizada no polo regional calçadista do Vale do Rio dos Sinos. Os dados primários foram coletados por meio de entrevistas semi-estruturadas com stakeholders das duas empresas. Os principais dados secundários das empresas foram, respectivamente, na empresa multinacional, o website, o código de conduta na produção de calçados e apresentações documentais sobre a mesma, ao passo em que na empresa agente, o conteúdo pertinente foi alcançado através de publicações próprias e documentos oficiais, como o manual de qualidade empresarial. Os resultados apontam que a estrutura de análise da presente pesquisa foi um mecanismo válido para a identificação, observação e, estudo dos elementos físicos e simbólicos na trajetória multiterritorial da parceria internacional. Evidenciam também, os elementos que receberam mais atenção dos entrevistados, são eles: mudanças de sistemas, mudanças de processos, mudanças de práticas, mudanças de estilos de gestão, padronização, adesão a mudanças, interesses econômicos, abertura de mercados, declínio de mercado, impactos econômicos, impactos sociais e redução de operações. Estes elementos regem o fenômeno multiterritorial. Além disso, um resultado relevante encontrado na pesquisa foi a predominância de elementos de origem simbólica, o que deve ser ressaltado diante de pesquisas que não consideram tais elementos com tamanha importância na comparação com elementos materiais ou físicos. Na análise entre stakeholders do Brasil e EUA, os elementos físicos tiveram razoável importância e os simbólicos, muita importância, para ambos os países. Já na análise entre diferentes categorias de stakeholders, foi dada razoável importância aos elementos físicos por todos eles e, muita importância para os simbólicos por stakeholders e stakekeepers; contudo, para os stakewatchers, os elementos simbólicos são apenas importantes. Assim, a presente pesquisa poderá servir como alternativa para estudos que envolvam parcerias organizacionais e mudança territorial. Percebe-se a oportunidade obtida para o desenvolvimento exploratório acerca de elementos simbólicos que permeiam esses temas. Portanto, pode-se analisar ainda mais a percepção de stakeholders com relação a estes elementos simbólicos. / Since the opening of the brazilian international trade in 1990, there is the rise of dynamic business processes introduced by globalization. Thus, the phenomenon of multi-territoriality is an alternative to studies such as the internationalization of companies. To act in this way, organizations are faced with physical and symbolic spaces, from which emerge the elements of the same order. However, there are few studies about the multi-territory phenomenon, nor on the physical and symbolic elements. Moreover, considering that the study is reflected in a historical trajectory verified by path dependence analysis, these elements will make part of actions related to a partnership between organizations, which will be seen through the perspective of their respective stakeholders. The theoretical review, therefore, focused on the relationship between path dependence, and the development of a historical projection process about multi-territoriality, and about the physical and symbolic elements that surround it. Thus, the theory of stakeholders came assist in categorizing the different types of groups or individuals involved, which may affect or be affected by organizations. A case study was prepared for analyzing the partnership of a multinational in downstream of the leather footwear chain, with a business agent for export of shoes, located in the brazilian city of Novo Hamburgo, in the regional shoes cluster of Vale do Rio dos Sinos. Primary data were collected through semi-structured interviews with stakeholders of both companies. The main secondary data of the companies were, respectively, in the multinational company, the website, the code of conduct in the production of footwear, and the documentary presentations, while that in the agent company, the content has been achieved through its own publications and official documents, such as the corporate quality manual. The results indicate that the structure of analysis of this research was a valid mechanism for identification, observation and study of physical and symbolic elements in the multi-territory trajectory of international partnership. Also highlight the elements that received the most attention from respondents, they are: changes of systems, changes of processes, changes of practices, changes of management styles, standardization, adherence to changes, economic interests, opening markets, declining of market, economic impacts, social impacts and reduction of operations. These elements guide the multi-territorial phenomenon. Moreover, a relevant result found in the research was the predominance of symbolic origin’s elements, what should be emphasized since there are researches that do not consider such elements with this importance in comparison with material or physical elements. Analyzing stakeholders from Brazil and USA, the physical elements were considered reasonably important, and the symbolic very important, for both countries. In the analysis among different categories of stakeholders, has been given reasonable importance to the physical elements by all of them, and the symbolic elements were considered very important by stakeholders and stakekeepers; although, for stakewatchers, the symbolic elements are merely important. Thus, this research may serve as an alternative to studies involving organizational partnerships and territorial change. This can be seen as the opportunity for exploratory development on the symbolic elements that permeate these themes. Therefore, the perception of stakeholders can be even more analyzed, regarding these symbolic elements.

Considerando que transformações no sistema tributário indicam processos de construção do Estado, o presente trabalho dirige-se aos seguintes problemas: quais os determinantes sociais e políticos do sistema tributário paraguaio desde a transição democrática, 1989? Qual a influência dos principais setores econômicos? Por que tem sido particularmente difícil extrair impostos das elites privadas no país? De forma a responder tais questões, o trabalho está organizado da seguinte maneira. Primeiro, traz uma periodização da construção do Estado no Paraguai a fim de contextualizar o processo em andamento. Segundo, apresenta indicadores para ilustrar a conjuntura socioeconômica, institucional e fiscal do país. E terceiro, analisa a trajetória das reformas tributárias implementadas no Paraguai desde 1989 a partir de categorias da literatura de sociologia fiscal. O estudo sugere a existência de estruturas de dependência de trajetória no sistema tributário paraguaio, conformadas pela ação política de elites agrárias com alto grau de coesão e dominância. Essas elites têm conseguido bloquear reformas que possibilitariam transformações em termos de capacidade e progressividade do sistema tributário, além de perfurar sua universalidade. / Assuming that changes in the tax system indicate state-building processes, this paper addresses the following questions: what are the social and political determinants of the Paraguayan tax system since the beginning of the democratic transition in 1989? What is the influence of the country’s main economic sectors? Why have state authorities in Paraguay been so unsuccessful to impose taxes on its private elites? To best answer these questions, the study is organized as follows. First, it provides a periodization of state-building in Paraguay so as to contextualize the ongoing process. Second, it illustrates the country’s socioeconomic, institutional and fiscal situation through the display of indicators. Third, it draws upon scholarship on fiscal sociology to provide analysis of the trajectory of tax reforms implemented in Paraguay since 1989. The study suggests the existence of a path dependent tax structure that was shaped by political action of highly cohesive and dominant agrarian elites. These elites have been able to veto reforms that would allow changes in levels of tax capacity and tax progressivity, besides having perforated tax universality.

Did the new Bolivian Constitution of 2009 influence a change on its democratic model? The thesis of the article claims that as a result of how the Constitution elaboration process was carried out on a frame of certain historical conditions, the product elaborated –The Constitution- by the Constituent Assembly had little substantial change in contrast to former Constitutions. Historical constrains of the Bolivian economy and the polarization of the actors involved on the elaboration process of the new Constitution had a great influence to prevent a substantially different new one. Progressive’s elements were introduced as a matter of result of the Bolivian revolution as Human Rights, Plurinationality, and Regional Autonomies, but certain constitutional prerogatives remained unchanged to preserve the status quo. The presence of corporatists, rentist and statist actors has been a trend along Bolivian history, which does allow the reproduction of the internal political relationships of the Bolivian model and inhibits the possibility of a substantial change or re-foundation. Furthermore, the pos-contitutional situation will consolidate a democracy that hardly would break the historical constrains thatrules its hybrid character. / ¿La nueva Constitución Boliviana del 2009 motivó un cambio sustancial en su modelo democrático? La tesis del artículo argumenta que la poca variación sustancial en el producto elaborado –la Constitución- por la Asamblea Constituyente, en comparación a Constituciones anteriores, fue fruto de cómo se llevó a cabo el proceso de elaboración de la misma aunque se debe resaltar algunas consideraciones históricas. Las constricciones históricas de la economía boliviana así como la polarización de actores en la elaboración de la nueva Constitución tuvieron una gran influencia al impedir una refundación de la misma. Si bien hubo un gran recojo de elementos progresistas fruto de la revolución boliviana como Derechos Humanos, Plurinacionalidad y Autonomías Regionales, aún se mantuvieron ciertas prerrogativas constitucionales a actores que protegían el status quo. La presencia de actores corporativistas, rentistas y estatistas se ha mantenido a lo largo del tiempo, por lo que se permite la reproducción de las relaciones políticas internas del modelo boliviano y se inhibe la posibilidad de su reemplazo o refundación. Esto derivó en una situación posconstitucional que consolidará una democracia que dificultosamente podrá quebrar las ataduras de un pasado que condiciona su carácter híbrido.

Esta pesquisa tem por objetivo investigar os fatores que motivaram a ruptura da trajetória de desenvolvimento da pecuária de corte brasileira, suas características históricas e os elementos que caracterizam o papel da Ciência neste processo. A escolha da bovinocultura de corte como tema de pesquisa deve-se ao fato de o Brasil apresentar grande competitividade na produção de carne, posicionando-se como um dos maiores produtores de carne bovina do mundo e um dos maiores exportadores mundiais. A motivação para a realização deste estudo está na importância que a geração de conhecimento e tecnologias tem exercido sobre a bovinocultura de corte quanto à sua busca por incrementos em eficiência e produtividade. Apesar da evolução da ciência nesta área possibilitar que a atividade fosse uma das mais competitivas do mundo em custos, volume e atendesse diferentes demandas, algumas barreiras são conferidas para que um cenário de baixa eficiência, despadronização dos produtos e deficiência na sanidade animal se perpetue na realidade brasileira, prejudicando sua posição comercial nacional e mundial. Através da reconstituição da história da formação dessa atividade como econômica e sua validação realizada por entrevistas semiestruturadas, procurou-se estabelecer as dependências evolutivas desencadeadas pelas escolhas de suas trajetórias passadas. A constituição da história da ciência e de seus marcos históricos também foi realizada através do levantamento de periódicos, simpósios, livros e artigos publicados desde 1860 até 2011, que determinaram as tecnologias formadoras das trajetórias de produção baseadas em ciência para este produto. A partir da linha temporal, econômica e tecnológica, foram realizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas junto aos diversos atores envolvidos nesta cadeia objetivando encontrar seus gargalos, visando à investigação sobre as barreiras do desenvolvimento. / This research aims to investigate the factors that led to the disruption of the developmental trajectory of Brazilian beef cattle, its historic features and elements that characterize the role of science in the process. The choice of beef cattle as a research topic is due to the fact that Brazil provides good competition in meat production, positioning itself as one of the largest beef producer in the world and one of the largest exporters. The motivation for this study is the importance that generation of knowledge and technology has had on the cattle as its quest for increases in efficiency and productivity. Despite the evolution of science in this area providing that the activity was one of the world\'s most competitive on cost, volume and would meet different demands, some barriers are conferred to a scenario of low efficiency, lack of standardization of the products and disabilities in animal health. These barriers perpetuate the Brazilian reality, damaging its commercial position nationally and globally. The reconstruction of the history of this formation as economic activity and its validation performed by semi-structured interviews sought to establish the evolutionary dependencies triggered by the choices of their past trajectories. The constitution of the history of science and its landmarks were also conducted by surveying journals, symposia, books and articles published from 1860 to 2011, which determined the technologies that were building trajectories of production based on science for this product. From this timeline, economic and technological, semi-structured interviews in order to research on the barriers of development were held with the various stakeholders involved in this chain trying to find its bottlenecks.