Located in the mesopontine tegmentum, the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) is comprised principally of glutamatergic, cholinergic and GABAergic neurons. In addition to being fully integrated into basal ganglia, PPTg projects to thalamus and motor output sites in the brainstem. Previous studies have shown a range of behavioural changes after PPTg manipulation. Prominent amongst these is an apparent deficit in the ability to learn the consequences of actions. PPTg is divisible into a posterior component (pPPTg) in receipt of rapid polymodal sensory input and projecting into VTA/SNc dopamine neurons and an anterior component (aPPTg) in receipt of basal ganglia outflow and projecting into SNc and lower brainstem structures. The research described here assesses the role of the pPPTg in instrumental learning. Using a contingency degradation paradigm, it was shown that inactivation of the pPPTg (by muscimol microinfusion) specifically blocked the updating of associations between actions and outcomes, without the affecting the ability to re-execute previously learned instrumental actions. Selective bilateral destruction of pPPTg cholinergic neurons (with the fusion toxin diphtheria toxin – urotensin II [Dtx-UII]) resulted in >90% loss of pPPTg cholinergic neurons. These lesions produced no detectable changes on any measured aspect of an instrumental learning task consisting of various fixed and variable ratio schedules of reinforcement and extinction. Subsequent experiments found that the same selective cholinergic pPPTg lesions also produced no changes in the locomotor response to nicotine or rate of nicotine sensitisation. These results are the first to demonstrate a brainstem role in action-outcome learning. Results support the view that PPTg performs a ‘first pass' analysis on incoming sensory data and interfaces salient aspects of this with appropriate basal ganglia and brainstem circuitry, with glutamatergic pPPTg projections sending an essential signal and cholinergic projections performing as part of a wider modulatory system.

The mechanisms underlying the generation of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep are poorly understood. Despite a lack of direct support, neurons maximally active during REM sleep (REM sleep-active) located in the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTn) are hypothesized to generate this state and its component phenomenology. This hypothesis has never been directly tested, since the results of selectively inhibiting this cell-group have never been determined. Using microdialysis, electrophysiology, histochemical and pharmacological methods in freely-behaving rats (n=22) instrumented for sleep-wake state and respiratory muscle recordings, I selectively inhibited REM sleep-active PPTn neurons. Contrary to the prevailing hypothesis, I showed that REM sleep-active PPTn neurons suppress REM sleep by limiting the frequency of its onset. These neurons also shape the impact of REM sleep on breathing. REM sleep-active PPTn neurons restrain behavioural activation of upper-airway musculature during REM sleep, while depressing breathing rate and respiratory activation of the upper-airway musculature across sleep-wake-states.

The mechanisms underlying the generation of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep are poorly understood. Despite a lack of direct support, neurons maximally active during REM sleep (REM sleep-active) located in the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTn) are hypothesized to generate this state and its component phenomenology. This hypothesis has never been directly tested, since the results of selectively inhibiting this cell-group have never been determined. Using microdialysis, electrophysiology, histochemical and pharmacological methods in freely-behaving rats (n=22) instrumented for sleep-wake state and respiratory muscle recordings, I selectively inhibited REM sleep-active PPTn neurons. Contrary to the prevailing hypothesis, I showed that REM sleep-active PPTn neurons suppress REM sleep by limiting the frequency of its onset. These neurons also shape the impact of REM sleep on breathing. REM sleep-active PPTn neurons restrain behavioural activation of upper-airway musculature during REM sleep, while depressing breathing rate and respiratory activation of the upper-airway musculature across sleep-wake-states.

The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) is a reticular collection of neurons at the junction of midbrain and pons. The PPN in animal models appears topographically organised and functionally related to locomotion and arousal. In Parkinson’s disease, the PPN degenerates and is susceptible to abnormal basal ganglia output. In patients with Parkinson’s disease, low frequency PPN stimulation is proposed to improve gait freezing and postural instability. However, the therapeutic mechanisms, optimal clinical application and precise effects on gait and posture of PPN stimulation are unclear. Here, a topographic arrangement of the PPN was supported by local field potential recordings in parkinsonian patients. In the PPN region, beta oscillations were recorded rostrally and alpha oscillations caudally. Alpha oscillations, consistent with their putative role in allocating attention, correlated with gait performance and attenuated with gait freezing. Thus the caudal PPN subregion may be the most relevant target for gait disorders. Accordingly, an unblinded clinical study suggested that stimulation of the caudal PPN subregion was beneficial for gait freezing, postural instability and falls. In a double-blinded study using spatiotemporal gait analysis, caudal PPN stimulation reduced triggered gait freezing, with bilateral stimulation more effective than unilateral. However, akinesia including akinetic gait did not improve with PPN stimulation. Accordingly, dopaminergic medication requirements did not change. Mechanisms underlying gait freezing and PPN stimulation were explored with reaction time experiments. Parkinsonian patients with severe gait freezing and postural instability demonstrated a ‘block’ to pre-programmed movement. This was evidenced by prolonged simple reaction times and the absence of ‘StartReact’, whereby pre-prepared responses are normally accelerated by loud acoustic stimuli. PPN stimulation improved simple reaction time and restored Startreact. The relief of this ‘motor block’ with PPN stimulation may therefore explain the associated improvement in gait freezing and postural instability, as these tend to occur in circumstances requiring triggered, pre-prepared adjustments.

No description available.

The reinforcing properties of nicotine depend partly on cholinergic projections from the pedunculopontine tegmental (PPTg) and laterodorsal tegmental (LDTg) nuclei to midbrain dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). Neuronal activation was investigated using Fos expression in these areas following acute (0, 0.1, 0.4, 0.8mg/kg) or chronic systemic nicotine (0, 0.1, 0.4, 0.8, 1.0mg/kg given once per day for 5 days). We also examined co-localization of Fos expression in bNOS and TH positive neurons to determine what populations of neurons were activated by nicotine. Acute nicotine resulted in dose related Fos expression, with the biggest increase seen after 0.4mg/kg nicotine, but no co-localization occurred with bNOS in the PPTg/LDTg. Surprisingly, nicotine also failed to activate midbrain dopamine neurons. After animals were sensitized to nicotine there was a similar dose response curve in Fos expression, but the biggest increase was seen after 0.8mg/kg nicotine. Chronic nicotine, like acute, also preferentially activated non-cholinergic neurons in the LDTg and PPTg and non-dopamine neurons in the SNc and VTA. Further experiments looked at the mechanisms of Fos expression after nicotine administration. Fos expression in the LDTg/PPTg and SNc/VTA was suppressed after d-amphetamine, despite an increase in locomotor activity, suggesting that the increased Fos expression after chronic nicotine was not simply due to the locomotor activating effects of sensitized nicotine. Blocking autoreceptors in the dopaminergic midbrain by haloperidol pre-treatment did not increase Fos expression in dopamine neurons indicating that the inhibitory mechanism was not dependent on local autoreceptors. Novel methods of visualising and lesioning GABA neurons in the mesopontine tegmentum and midbrain were also examined. The data suggest that the mechanisms by which dopamine is involved in the pharmacological actions of passively administered nicotine are more complex than was first thought and that the role of non-dopamine neurons in the VTA (possibly GABA or glutamate containing) are also important.

Orientadora: Profa. Dra. Marcela Bermudez Echeverry / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociência e Cognição, 2016. / A Doença de Parkinson (DP) é caracterizada por uma degeneração progressiva dos neurônios dopaminérgicos na substância negra e pela presença de 4 sinais cardinais, bradicinesia, rigidez muscular, tremor em repouso e instabilidade postural. Sua etiologia ainda é desconhecida, no entanto, o aumento do estresse oxidativo é uma das hipóteses a ser analisada. Existe um interesse cada vez maior em compreender o papel funcional e comportamental do estriado dorsolateral (CPU-DL), principalmente sobre o controle do equilíbrio postural. Dessa forma, o presente projeto se propôs a avaliar o efeito de diferentes toxinas, 6-hidroxidopamina (6-OHDA), L-butionina-sulfoximina (BSO) e a rotenona, sobre o CPU-DL e a resposta compensatória do sistema nitrérgico de forma tempo dependente. Foram utilizados ratos Wistar adultos, todos os procedimentos foram aprovados pelo CEUA-UFABC (Protocolo 035/2014). O Estudo 1 foi separado em 2 fases, no experimento 1.1 os animais foram divididos em 3 grupos, os quais receberam microinjeções no CPU-DL direito de 6- OHDA, BSO ou salina, sendo avaliados comportamentalmente 5 dias após a cirurgia e sacrificados no 6º dia. No experimento 1.2 os animais foram divididos em 3 grupos, os quais foram submetidos a uma dupla lesão, recebendo 6-OHDA no CPUDL + salina no PPTg, 6- OHDA no CPU-DL + BSO no PPTg ou salina no CPU-DL + salina no PPTg. Os animais do experimento 1.2 foram avaliados entre os 15º e 44º dias pós cirúrgico, sendo eutanasiados no 45º. No segundo estudo desenvolvido, os animais foram divididos em 5 grupos, os quais receberam 2 microinjeções no CPU-DL direito de rotenona (3mM, 5mM ou 9mM), DMSO (25% - veículo) ou salina, sendo avaliados entre os dias 15º e 44º pós cirúrgicos e sacrificados no 45º dia. Foram utilizados na avaliação comportamental os testes: comportamento rotatório induzido por apomorfina e anfetamina, teste de suspensão na grade, teste da cauda suspensa, teste do cilindro, equilíbrio vertical e labirinto em cruz elevado. Vinte e quatro horas após as análises comportamentais os animais foram sacrificados e procedimentos para analise imunohistoquímica foram realizados. No experimento 1.1 não se detectou alteração comportamental significativa, entretanto, no experimento 1.2 observou-se uma redução na performance dos grupos tratados em relação ao controle salina. Nossos resultados sugerem que tanto a 6-OHDA como o BSO, quando aplicados no CPU-DL, diminuem a expressão de TH+ na região CPU-DL e CPU-dorsomedial (CPU-DM), com aumento da expressão para a proteína nNOS no CPU-DL, sendo que o grupo 6-OHDA também mostrou aumento no CPUDM e núcleo accumbens. Por outro lado, um aumento escasso na expressão da proteína nitrotirosina foi observado no grupo BSO, no CPU-DM e CPU-ventrolateral (CPU-VL). A avaliação com maior intervalo de tempo realizada com as mesmas toxinas, indicou um possível papel neuroprotetor da injeção de BSO no PPTg contra o efeito neurotóxico da 17 injeção de 6- OHDA na CPU-DL. O segundo estudo desenvolvido corrobora uma potencial qualidade preditiva da microinjeção estriatal de rotenona como modelo de hemiparkinsonismo, pois foi capaz de mimetizar sintomas motores relacionados ao equilíbrio postural (rotarod, grade e equilíbrio vertical) e imunohistoquímicos, com aumento da expressão de nNOS e diminuição da expressão da TH+ de forma dose dependente no CPU e na substância negra. Nossos resultados sugerem que determinadas neurotoxinas, embora pouco exploradas, quando administradas via intra-estriatal, revelaram-se potencialmente efetivas para a indução de alterações no equilíbrio postural em modelos experimentais; corroborando portanto, uma possível interação do sistema dopaminérgico nigro-estriatal atrelado a um desbalanço do sistema nitrérgico, responsável pelo estresse oxidativo/nitrosativo relacionado aos processos neurodegenerativos. Neste sentido novos estudos devem ser conduzidos para uma melhor compreensão e elucidação da etiopatogenia da DP, além de novas perspectivas para futuras estratégias terapêuticas. / Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and the presence of four cardinal signs, bradykinesia, muscular rigidity, resting tremor, and postural instability. Its etiology is still unknown, however, increased oxidative stress is one of the hypotheses to be analyzed. There is a growing interest in understanding the functional and behavioral role of the dorsolateral striatum (CPU-DL), mainly on the control of postural balance. Thus, this project aimed to evaluate the effect of different toxins, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), L-buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) and rotenone on the CPU-DL and the compensatory response nitrergic system time dependent manner. Adult Wistar rats were used, all procedures were approved by CEUA-UFABC (Protocol 035/2014). The first study was separated into two phases in the experiment 1.1 the animals were divided into 3 groups, which were microinjected on the CPU-DL right of 6- OHDA, BSO or saline, being evaluated behaviorally 5 days after surgery and sacrificed on the 6th day. In the 1.2 experiment the animals were divided into 3 groups, which were subjected to a double lesion, receiving 6-OHDA in CPUDL + saline in PPTg, 6-OHDA-CPU-DL + BSO - PPTg or saline + saline. The animals of the experiment 1.2 were evaluated between 15 and 44 days after surgery, being euthanized after 45 days. In the second study developed the animals were divided into 5 groups, which were microinjected the CPU-DL right to rotenone (3 mM, 5 mM or 9mm), DMSO (25% - vehicle) or saline, were evaluated between days 15 and 44 post surgical and sacrificed on the 45th day. Were used for behavioral evaluation tests: rotational behavior induced by apomorphine and amphetamine, the grid test, elevated body swing test, drum test, vertical maze and balance in high cross. Twenty-four hours after the behavioral tests the animals were sacrificed and immunohistochemical analysis procedures were performed. For first study, was not detected behavioral change in the 1.1 experiment, however in the 1.2 experiment, there was a reduced performance of the treated groups compared to saline control on the rotarod test. Nevertheless, our results suggest that both 6- OHDA as BSO, when applied to the CPU-DL decrease TH + expression on the CPU-DL and CPU-DM area with increased expression of nNOS protein in the CPU-DL , and the 6-OHDA group also showed an increase in CPU-DM and nucleus accumbens. Still, a scarce increase in the expression of nitrotyrosine protein was observed in the CPU DM and VL on BSO group. The results of 1.2 suggests a possible neuroprotective role of BSO injection in PPTg after neurotoxic effect of 6-OHDA injection the CPU-DL. To the second study, our findings suggest a potential predictive quality of rotenone striatal microinjection as hemiparkinsonismo model because it was able to mimic motor symptoms related to postural balance (rotarod, grid and vertical balance) and immunohistochemical, an increase of nNOS expression and decreased expression of TH+ dose dependent manner in the CPU and the substantia nigra. Our results suggest that neurotoxins, though little exploited when administered intra-striatal pathway, have proved to be potentially effective for inducing changes in the postural balance in experimental models; corroborating therefore a possible interaction of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system linked to an imbalance nitrergic system, responsible for the oxidative stress/nitrosative related to neurodegeneration. In this sense new studies should be conducted to better understand and elucidate the pathogenesis of PD, as well as new perspectives for future therapeutic strategies.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) and DBS of the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) have been shown to be effective surgical therapies for Parkinson’s disease (PD). To better understand the PPN and STN as DBS targets for PD, this research compares the anatomy, electrophysiology, and motor control roles of these nuclei. PPN and STN connections were examined in vivo in human subjects and in the non-human primate using probabilistic diffusion tractography. Both the PPN and STN were connected with each other and with the motor cortex (M1) and basal ganglia. After studying these anatomical connections in primates, their functional significance was further explored in an anesthetized rat model of PD. Examination of the electrophysiological relationship between the PPN and basal ganglia in the presence of slow cortical oscillatory activity suggested that excitatory input from the STN may normally modulate PPN spike timing but that inhibitory oscillatory input from the basal ganglia output nuclei has a greater effect on PPN spike timing in the parkinsonian brain. To examine transmission and modulation of oscillatory activity between these structures at higher frequencies, LFP activity was recorded from the PPN and STN in PD patients performing simple voluntary movements. Movement-related modulation of oscillatory activity predominantly occurred in the α (8-12 Hz) and low β (12-20 Hz) frequencies in the STN but in the high β (20-35 Hz) frequencies in the PPN, supporting observations from rodent studies suggesting that oscillatory activity is not directly transmitted from the STN to the PPN in PD. Finally, to better understand the roles of the STN and PPN in large-scale movement, the effects of STN and PPN DBS on gait abnormalities in PD patients were studied. DBS of the STN appeared to improve gait by optimising executive gait control while DBS of the PPN appeared to restore autonomic gait control. These results have several implications for DBS patient selection, surgical targeting, and for understanding the mechanisms underlying DBS efficacy.

De nombreux patients parkinsoniens souffrent de troubles du sommeil, et à un stade avancé de troubles de la marche dopa-résistants. Des résultats expérimentaux et cliniques orientent vers un dysfonctionnement de la région locomotrice mésencéphalique (MLR) formée des noyaux pédonculopontin (PPN) et cunéiforme (CuN). La stimulation cérébrale profonde du PPN chez les patients parkinsoniens ayant des troubles de la marche modifiant aussi l'architecture du sommeil, un dysfonctionnement de ce noyau pourrait expliquer en partie ces symptômes. Afin d'étudier l'anatomie et le rôle du PPN et du CuN à l'état normal et à l'état parkinsonien, ce projet a associé une étude comportementale et anatomique de la MLR. Axe comportemental. Nous avons analysé les troubles du sommeil dans un modèle primate de maladie de Parkinson avancée, puis l'effet du traitement dopaminergique et de la mélatonine, et d'une lésion cholinergique du PPN surajoutée. Les troubles du sommeil sont similaires à ceux observés chez les patients, et améliorés par la L-dopa et la mélatonine. La lésion du PPN aggrave les troubles du sommeil en aigu, puis améliore la qualité du sommeil à distance. Axe anatomique. Nous avons défini l'hodologie du PPN et du CuN chez le singe et l'homme en fonction des trois territoires anatomo-fonctionnels des ganglions de la base. Le PPN intègre des informations très diverses (sensori-motrices, associatives et limbiques), le CuN est impliqué dans un réseau limbique. L'innervation cholinergique du PPN sur le NST a été caractérisée en microscopie optique et électronique chez le singe et l'homme, afin de préciser leur implication dans les effets cliniques de la stimulation du NST. / Parkinsonian patients suffer from disabling sleep disorders, and at an advanced stage gait disorders become resistant to dopaminergic treatment. Evidence from experimental and clinical studies consider the implication of the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR), associating the pedunculopontine (PPN) and the cuneiform nuclei (CuN). Deep brain stimulation in this regionto treat doparesistant gait disorders in parkinsonian patients, was shown to improve sleep parameters. Dysfunction of this network could explain part of the pathophysiology of these symptoms. In order to have an anatomo-functional study of the PPN and the CuN at normal and parkinsonian state, this project has associated a behavioral axis in monkeys and an anatomic axis in monkeys and humans. Behavioral study. Sleep disorders have been analyzed in an advanced Parkinson disease primate model. These symptoms were improved with dopaminergic treatment and melatonin.After a cholinergic PPN lesion, there was an acute worsening of the symptoms, which improved three weeks after. Anatomic study. We analyzed the connections between the PPN and the CuN relating to the three anatomo-functional territories of the basal ganglia in monkeys and humans. The PPN integrated information from the three territories (sensori-motor, associative and limbic), compared to the CuN which connected to limbic territories. We then studied the subthalamic cholinergic innervation from the PPN at optic and ultra-structural level in monkeys and humans, comparing it with the dopaminergic innervation. Our results showed a homogeneous cholinergic innervation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) compared to the heterogeneous dopaminergic innervation.

Cholinergic inputs from mesopontine tegmentum activate midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons via M5 muscarinic receptors. The M5 receptor is important for mesopontine stimulation-induced accumbal or striatal DA efflux, brain stimulation reward or morphine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP). M5 receptor knockout (KO) mice show 40-50% less morphine-induced locomotion. Pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPT) lesions in rodents block morphine CPP, but are ineffective after 18 hours food deprivation, opiate dependence, or intra-VTA BDNF. Based on these findings, we investigated whether acute food deprivation or intra-VTA BDNF alters morphine-induced locomotion (3 and 10 mg/kg, i.p.) in C57BL/6 M5 KO mice. Non-deprived M5 KOs showed reduced morphine-induced locomotion, suggesting M5 receptors partly mediate morphine-induced locomotion. Morphine-induced locomotion was reversed in food-deprived mice, suggesting the stimulant effects of morphine were altered to bypass the PPT. Unexpectedly, intra-VTA BDNF infusions were ineffective in altering morphine-induced locomotion. Additionally, M5 KOs receiving intra-VTA saline showed no deficits in morphine-induced locomotion.