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Content removed due to copyright restrictions: Okeoma, C. M., Stowell, K. M., Williamson, N. B., & Pomroy, W. E. (2005). Neospora caninum: Quantification of DNA in the blood of naturally infected aborted and pregnant cows using real-time PCR. Experimental Parasitology, 110(1), 48-55. Okeoma, C. M., Williamson, N. B., Pomroy, W. E., Stowell, K. M., & Gillespie, L. M. (2004). Isolation and molecular characterisation of neospora caninum in cattle in new zealand. New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 52(6), 364-370. Okeoma, C. M., Williamson, N. B., Pomroy, W. E., Stowell, K. M., & Gillespie, L. (2004). The use of PCR to detect neospora caninum DNA in the blood of naturally infected cows. Veterinary Parasitology, 122(4), 307-315. Okeoma, C. M., Williamson, N. B., Pomroy, W. E., & Stowell, K. M. (2004). Recognition patterns of neospora caninum tachyzoite antigens by bovine IgG at different IFAT titres. Parasite Immunology, 26(4), 177-185. / The objective of this research was to investigate neosporosis in New Zealand cattle using experimental and molecular tools. The research also aimed to isolate and characterise an indigenous New Zealand isolate of Neospora caninum. A series of discrete projects were conducted to achieve the set objectives. A pilot study was first conducted and a wild-type strain of non-cytopathic bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) type 1 virus was isolated in vitro from a persistently infected heifer. The isolate was used to challenge heifers and the effect of experimental BVDV infection on heifers naturally infected with N. caninum was investigated. Results showed that heifers that were both BVDV and N. caninum seropositive produced 44.4% (8/ 18) damcalf pairs that were both BVDV and N caninum seropositive. Serologically, 66.7% (12/18) dam-calf pairs were seropositive to N. caninum antibodies, while 80% (8/10) dam-calf pairs were BVDV seropositive. A Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) study was also conducted and N. caninum DNA was detected in the blood of naturally infected aborting and pregnant heifers. Real-time quantification of N. caninum DNA in the blood of infected heifers showed a decrease of N. caninum DNA after abortion in the aborting group and an increase through gestation in the pregnant group. A study of antigenicity recognised 7 immunodominant (~18, ~25, ~33, ~35~36, ~45~46, ~47 and 60-62 kDa) and 5 minor antigens of N. caninum by cow sera. Three isolates of N. caninum (NcNZ 1 ,NcNZ 2 and NcNZ 3) were isolated from the brains of an infected cow, her calf and a stillborn calf. These isolates were confirmed as N. caninum by PCR, immunofluorescence antibody test and immunohistochemistry and were pathogenic to BALB/c mice.

Broad-scale forest die-off associated with drought and heat has now been reported from every forested continent, posing a global-scale challenge to forest management. Climate-driven die-off is frequently compounded with other drivers of tree mortality, such as altered land use, wildfire, and invasive species, making forest management increasingly complex. Facing similar challenges, rangeland managers have widely adopted the approach of developing conceptual models that identify key ecosystem states and major types of transitions between those states, known as "state-and-transition models" (S&T models). Using expert opinion and available research, the development of such conceptual S&T models has proven useful in anticipating ecosystem changes and identifying management actions to undertake or to avoid. In cases where detailed data are available, S&T models can be developed into probabilistic predictions, but even where data are insufficient to predict transition probabilities, conceptual S&T models can provide valuable insights for managing a given ecosystem and for comparing and contrasting different ecosystem dynamics. We assembled a synthesis of 14 forest die-off case studies from around the globe, each with sufficient information to infer impacts on forest dynamics and to inform management options following a forest die-off event. For each, we developed a conceptual S&T model to identify alternative ecosystem states, pathways of ecosystem change, and points where management interventions have been, or may be, successful in arresting or reversing undesirable changes. We found that our diverse set of mortality case studies fit into three broad classes of ecosystem trajectories: (1) single-state transition shifts, (2) ecological cascading responses and feedbacks, and (3) complex dynamics where multiple interactions, mortality drivers, and impacts create a range of possible state transition responses. We integrate monitoring and management goals in a framework aimed to facilitate development of conceptual S&T models for other forest die-off events. Our results highlight that although forest die-off events across the globe encompass many different underlying drivers and pathways of ecosystem change, there are commonalities in opportunities for successful management intervention.

<p>Antimicrobial resistant bacteria pose a serious threat to global public health. With the development of antibioticresistance far outpacing the discovery of new antibiotics, there is a need to  develop  alternative  strategies  to  control  bacterial  infections without increasing  antibiotic resistance. This study focused on developing bacteriophage therapy as a non-antibiotic means to control colibacillosis in poultry. Avian colibacillosis causes significant mortality and economic loss to poultry industries around the world. The etiological agent is Avian Pathogenic<em> E.  coli</em> (APEC), with serotypes are O78, O1, O2 and O5 most often associated with infections. Here, seven bacteriophages (AHP, MP1, MP2, AKA, MKA, AHC and MIA) were isolated from human and poultry wastewater samples to target these four APEC serotypes.</p> <p>The host-spectrum analysis of these phages revealed that all seven phages lysed at least two different APEC strains, with four phages lysing four or more distinct APEC serotypes. Taken together, the isolated phages covered 90% (9/10) of O-serotyped APEC strains targeted in our study. When co-cultured with the targeted APEC strain, bacterial concentrations in phage treated APEC cultures (average OD₆₀₀= 0.09) were significantly (P < 0.05) lower than those of untreated cultures  (average  OD₆₀₀=  1.22)  after  4  hr  incubation.  However,  exposure  of  the  phages  to simulated gastric fluid (pH 2.2–2.5) reduced viability of three of the seven phages by 2.35 –4.01 log PFU/mL after 90 min and to undetectable levels after 5 min for other four phages. In contrast, phage viability was not impacted by simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) with no reductions in phage concentrations after exposure to SIF for 3 hr. All seven bacteriophages were encapsulated in sodium  alginate  microcapsules  with  encapsulation  efficiencies  between  94.4%  to  98.9%.  In contrast to unprotected phages, viability of encapsulated phages was reduced by only0.74 –1.21  log PFU/mL when exposed to SGF for 90 min. Incubating the encapsulated phages sequentially in SGF (1 hr) and SIF (3 hr) indicated that 85% -90% of phages were released from the microcapsules after1 hr incubation in SIF with the maximum release of phages from the microcapsules occurring after 3 hr of incubation in SIF. To assess the in vivoefficacy of the phage treatment, broiler chicks were challenged with APEC and treated with a mixture of unprotected and encapsulated phages. Concentrations of the APEC in the ceca of phage treated birds (2.79 log CFU/g) were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than those of untreated birds (6.18 log CFU/g) by 4 d post-challenge. Additionally, in  most  cases,  APEC  was  not  recovered  from  the  lungs  of  phage  treated  birds  whereas concentrations of APEC in lungs of untreated birds was 4.81 log CFU/g. Hence, these results indicate that phage treatmenteffectively controlled APEC colonization and replication in the ceca and lungs of APEC-challenged chickens and provide further evidence of the viability of phage-based treatments as a non-antibiotic means of controlling bacterial infections in chickens.</p>

Flavour is a factor that has a large influence on meat quality. Pastoral flavour that results from the grazing of pasture is an undesirable characteristic of meat flavour for consumers more accustomed to meat produced by grain and concentrate feeding systems. In New Zealand there is a reliance on grazing systems for sheep meat production, however the resulting meat flavour is one factor that impedes the increase of sheep meat exports to discerning markets. Correlation of chemical analyses to sensory evaluations of sheep meat has identified that a high concentration of indole and skatole in the fat is associated with pastoral flavours. Indole and skatole are formed in the rumen from the microbial fermentation of tryptophan. New Zealand pasture is high in protein, which is both highly soluble and rapidly degraded in the rumen. As such, pasture diets provide a rich and ready source of tryptophan for the formation of indole and skatole in the rumen. Condensed tannins are known to slow the degradation of protein in the rumen. Therefore, one of the objectives of this study was to establish if dietary condensed tannin can reduce the ruminal biogenesis of indole and skatole and consequently, ameliorate pastoral flavour in sheep meat. White clover usually comprises up to 30% of the botanical composition of pastures in New Zealand, is highly degradable in the rumen and likely to result in a high availability of tryptophan in the rumen for conversion to indole and skatole. Therefore, another objective of this study was to determine if feeding white clover gave a significant increase in the formation of indole and skatole in the rumen compared to perennial ryegrass and if this has an effect on pastoral flavour in meat. These hypotheses were tested using a series of in vitro rumen fermentations that incorporated the use of fresh forages (Chapter 3 and 6). In vivo experiments were utilised to assess rumen formation of indole and skatole with different forages (Chapter 4) and to assess effects of dietary condensed tannin (CT; Chapter 5 and 7). Meat and fat samples from lambs used in Chapters 5 and 7 underwent sensory evaluation to determine if forage or CT treatments were having an effect on the fat odour or meat flavour. From the in vitro and in vivo experiments of (Chapter 3, 4, 6 and 7) it was calculated that the formation of indole and skatole with perennial ryegrass is generally only 6-41% of that formed with white clover. A higher concentration of indole and skatole was also observed in the blood plasma of lambs that were fed white clover compared to those that were fed perennial ryegrass (Chapter 7) and white clover gave an overall more intense flavour in the meat. Comparison of forages fermented in vitro (Chapter 3) showed that with forage legumes of a higher CT concentration, such as Lotus pedunculatus (98 gCT kg-1 DM) and Dorycnium rectum (122 gCT kg-1 DM), the indole and skatole formed was only 7-21% of that formed with white clover. With forages of an intermediate CT concentration such as sulla (Hedysarum coronarium) and Lotus corniculatus the indole and skatole concentration formed was 53-68% of that of white clover. From in vitro rumen fermentation of mixtures of white clover and Lotus pedunculatus it was concluded that the CT in Lotus pedunculatus was not reacting with the protein in white clover. Fermentation of fresh white clover in the presence of an increasing concentration of added CT extract showed that at a higher CT, indole and skatole formation were reduced to low levels. It was inferred that this was due to optimal protein binding and the availability of free condensed tannin to bind other sources of protein, including rumen microbes. However, in vivo dosing with a CT extract resulted in only a small reduction in rumen indole and skatole concentration. This indicated that when CT was dosed into the in vivo rumen of lambs fed fresh forages the CT probably passed from the rumen before adequate protein release from the forage had taken place. Thus, in the grazing situation it will be optimal to provide CT in planta to maximise protein binding and this, in combination with the high CT concentration needed (approximately 80 gCT kg-1 DM), makes Lotus pedunculatus or Dorycnium rectum the prime candidates for further grazing trials into pastoral flavour amelioration using CT forages. Grazing Lotus corniculatus (40 gCT kg-1 DM) in a field experiment resulted in a lower rumen and blood plasma and fat concentration of indole and skatole in comparison to the grazing of perennial ryegrass/white clover pasture. However, a change in the pastoral odour of the fat was not perceived by the sensory panel when comparing fat samples from lambs that had grazed Lotus corniculatus and perennial ryegrass/white clover pasture. The concentration of skatole in the body fat was less variable in the lambs that had grazed Lotus corniculatus and resulted in no lambs with a high outlying concentration (>100 ng g-1) of indole and skatole. This finding holds some potential for reducing pastoral flavour for consumers sensitive to high indole and skatole concentration in the fat. When condensed tannin was dosed to lambs that were fed white clover or perennial ryegrass in the form of a grape seed extract the intermittent supply of CT slightly reduced indole and skatole formation in the rumen and reduced the plasma concentration of indole and skatole. Flavour assessment of meat from the lambs fed white clover or perennial ryegrass with or without CT suggested that CT reduced the intensity of pastoral flavours. However, there were minimal effects on indole and skatole concentration in the body fat. It was possible that other pastoral flavour related compounds derived from the degradation of amino acids, in addition to indole and skatole that were measured, were having an effect on the meat flavour. It was concluded that dietary condensed tannin is able to reduce the formation of indole and skatole in the rumen and can alter the sensory attributes of sheep meat including reducing pastoral flavours. A higher CT concentration present within the forage plant (approximately 80 g kg-1 DM) will be best to minimise indole and skatole formation in the rumen and reduce pastoral flavours in the meat. Further research is required to confirm this in the grazing situation. Feeding white clover results in a greater rumen biogenesis of indole and skatole compared to perennial ryegrass and therefore, may be the primary contributor to pastoral flavours when ruminants graze conventional pastures. Further research is required to evaluate the flavour attributes that result from feeding white clover to meat producing ruminants in the New Zealand grazing situation.

Au cours des dernières décennies, la détérioration de la santé des forêts a entraîné des épidémies fréquentes des ravageurs et pathogènes. Ces phénomènes menacent la capacité des forêts à fournir des biens et services écosystémiques à la société. Il est donc nécessaire de maintenir la santé des arbres et de réduire les effets des parasites et des agents pathogènes. Cette thèse considère trois problèmes de gestion du point de vue économique : l'invasion actuelle, l'invasion attendue d'un agent pathogène, et les attaques d'un parasite endémique. À partir de ces trois problèmes de gestion, la thèse vise à évaluer les impacts des ravageurs et des pathogènes forestiers et à informer sur la manière dont les ressources peuvent être réparties de façon optimale pour assurer la fourniture de biens et de services par la forêt à long terme.Les invasions biotiques ont un impact sur les prix des produits du bois du fait des chocs d'approvisionnement qui, à leur tour, influencent les choix de gestion forestière. Ceci permet d'introduire des effets de réaction entre les dynamiques écologiques et de marché. Le premier article vise à évaluer ces impacts en combinant un modèle d’équilibre partiel avec des modèles de diffusion spatiale et de mortalité, calibrés pour représenter le dépérissement du Frêne en France (causé par le pathogène Hymenoscyphus fraxineus). Les résultats montrent que les impacts dépendent généralement de la distribution des ressources, de la propagation du pathogène et de la structure du marché. On observe que les choix d’adaptation des gestionnaires forestiers (c'est-à-dire les choix de régénération et de récolte) sont une composante non négligeable de la perte de volume totale.Le deuxième article est axé sur la surveillance et le contrôle d’une invasion attendue. La surveillance et la détection précoce des espèces envahissantes sont importantes pour atténuer les dommages et réduire les coûts de contrôle. Dans le cas où plusieurs propriétaires sont concernés, l’effort de surveillance des propriétaires plus proches du point d'introduction n’est pas optimal, car il ne prend pas en compte les effets négatifs de l'invasion dans les propriétés voisines. Grâce à un jeu différentiel, combiné à un modèle épidémiologique, nous avons calculé la solution non coopérative et coopérative. Nous avons conçu un paiement monétaire pour soutenir la coopération en fonction d'une décomposition intertemporelle du système de négociation de Nash. Les résultats nous montrent que ce paiement garantit que l’accord entre les deux propriétaires est crédible et incitatif. Le modèle est calibré pour l’éventuelle invasion du nématode du pin (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) dans le Massif Landais.L'objectif principal du troisième article est d'adapter la gestion forestière aux perturbations biotiques et abiotiques. On combine le modèle classique de Faustmann avec un modèle dynamique de population de ravageurs et un modèle de tempête pour calculer l'âge de coupe optimale et le bénéfice actualisé en séquence infinie (BASI) pour différents scénarios de perturbations. Le modèle est appliqué aux dégâts de la chenille processionnaire du pin (Thaumetopoea pityocampa) dans les Landes. Nos résultats ont montré que les tempêtes ont tendance à réduire l'âge optimal de la récolte, alors que le parasite tend à l'augmenter. Les éclaircies augmentent la rentabilité et constituent une stratégie de couverture efficace contre les deux risques. Dans le troisième article, nous avons introduit une règle de décision cut-or-keep pour modéliser le problème du propriétaire forestier après une tempête. Ces implications en termes de gestion sont étudiées plus en détail dans le quatrième article. Notre règle de décision conduit à des gains plus élevés (dans environ 75% des cas) qu’en suivant la règle, généralement utilisée en économie, qui consiste à couper et à replanter les arbres survivants indépendamment du niveau de dégâts. / In recent decades, the deterioration of forest health resulted in frequent pests’ outbreaks and the diffuse pathogens’ presence. These phenomena threaten forests’ ability to supply ecosystem goods and services to the society. It is therefore necessary to maintain tree health and reduce pest’s and pathogen’s impacts. This thesis approaches three management problems from an economic perspective such as the current invasion and the incumbent invasion of a forest pathogen as well as the outbreaks of a native pest. Starting from these three pest and pathogen management problems, the thesis aims at assessing the impacts of forest pests and pathogens and, secondly, informing how resources can be optimally allocated for assuring the long-term provision of good and services.Pest and pathogens invasions have an impact on the prices of wood products via supply shocks, which, in turn, influence forest management choices, thus introducing feedback effects between market and ecological dynamics at a large scale. The first paper aims at evaluating these impacts by combining a recursive partial equilibrium model with spatial-explicit pathogen-spread and pathogen-induced mortality models calibrated to represent the ash dieback in France (caused by the pathogen Hymenoscyphus fraxineus). Results showed that impacts are not homogeneous across regions and generally depend on the resource distribution, pathogen spread and market structure. We observed that the behavioural adaptation of forest managers (i.e., regeneration and harvesting choices) is a non-negligible component of the total standing volume loss.The second paper focusses on monitoring and control of an incumbent invasion. Monitoring and early detection of invasive species is important to mitigate the damages and reduce the control costs. However, when multiple decision-makers are involved, the monitoring effort of frontier landowners (landowners closer to the introduction point) is suboptimal because it does not consider the negative impacts of the invasion spreading to neighbouring properties. Through a two-player differential game combined with an epidemiological compartmental model, we computed the non-cooperative and the cooperative solution. We designed a monetary payment to sustain cooperation based on an intertemporal decomposition of the Nash bargaining scheme. We showed that this payment assured time-consistent outcomes, meaning that the ex-ante agreement between the two landowners was credible and self-enforcing. The model was calibrated for the possible invasion of the pine wilt nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) in south-western France.In the last two papers, the analysis is downscaled from the landscape level to the stand level and concentrates on a native defoliator pest. The main objective of the third paper is to adapt forest management to biotic and abiotic disturbances. The classic Faustmann model was combined with a pest population model and a windstorm model to compute the optimal rotation age and the land expectation value (LEV) for different disturbances scenarios. The model was calibrated for maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) plantations in south-western France and Pine Processionary Moth (PPM, Thaumetopoea pityocampa) cyclical outbreaks. Our results showed that storms tend to reduce the optimal harvest age, whereas PPM tends to increase it. Overall, the impact of PPM on the rotation length prevails and, here, risks increase rather than decrease the optimal rotation length. Thinnings increased profitability and constitute an effective hedging strategy against both risks. In the third paper, we introduced a cut-or-keep decision rule to model the forest owner problem after a storm event. Its economic and management implications are further investigated in the fourth paper. Unlike previous economic studies which assumed clearing and replanting regardless of the level of damages, the cut-or-keep condition led to higher payoffs in roughly 75% of the cases.

Previous research has shown that even small numbers of lung and gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes cause sub-clinical infections during autumn and can reduce voluntary feed intake (VFI) and liveweight gain (LWG) post-weaning in farmed deer. However, little is known about the effect of parasitism on growth of young farmed deer prior to weaning (summer and early autumn). At present, the control of deer parasites is largely by anthelmintic treatment. Alternatively, chicory sown as a pure sward has been shown to reduce parasitism and increase post-weaning growth of deer compared with perennial ryegrass-based pasture, although, neither forage plantain nor the inclusion of chicory in a pasture mix have yet been evaluated in this context. In addition, it has been suggested that to achieve a high pregnancy rate early in the mating season, deer calves should be weaned prior to mating to optimise nutrition and body condition of the hinds. At present there is no adequate evidence in the published literature to justify this. Two experiments were conducted in 2005 and 2006 respectively. The first experiment investigated the impact of early or late pre-rut weaning, with and without anthelmintic treatment, on parasitism and growth (LWG g/day) of deer calves during summer and early autumn. Weaning date effects on hind reproductive parameters were also investigated. The second experiment was a preliminary investigation to compare the effect of grazing permanent perennial ryegrass pasture (Lolium perenne) with chicory (Cichorium intybus) narrow-leaved plantain (Plantago lanceolata) and pasture mixes based on short-rotation tetraploid ryegrass (TSR-mix; nil endophyte) or long-rotation tetraploid ryegrass (TLR-mix; low endophyte), with both mixes sown with the same clover (white and red) and chicory, on post-weaning growth and endoparasitism of weaned farmed red deer calves in autumn. In 2005, seventy-six deer calves were randomly allocated in a 2x2 factorial design, involving sex, genotype, weaning date (February 17 or March 17), treatment with either topical moxidectin (0.5mg/kg) on January 14 and February 25 or no anthelmintic treatment. Liveweight gain, faecal gastrointestinal egg counts (FEC) and lungworm larval counts (FLC), haematological parameters and serum proteins concentrations (i.e., total protein, albumin and globulin) of calves were measured. Mixed-age adult hinds (64) were used to investigate the effect of weaning date on internal parasitism, conception date and pregnancy rate determined by ultrasound scanning. These hinds were not given anthelmintic treatment, but FLC and FEC were determined on January 12, February 17, March 17, March 31 and May 4. All deer rotationally grazed permanent perennial ryegrass-based pasture (Lolium perenne) together until weaning at which point calves were removed to separate but similar pasture. Calves weaned in March had a higher LWG to March 31 than those weaned in February (P<0.0001). Faecal larval count in treated calves was zero, but FEC remained similar to the untreated control calves, regardless of when they had been treated (average 136 epg, range 0-600 epg in mid February and average 92, range 0-350 epg at the end of March). Treated calves had higher serum albumin, and lower serum globulin concentrations than the untreated control group (albumin, 36.2 ± 0.3 vs 35.2 ± 0.3g/L; P<0.001; globulin, 23.9 ± 0.4 vs 25.5 ± 0.4g/L; P<0.005). In hinds, FLC averaged 5 lpg (range 0 – 122) and FEC averaged 26 (range 0- 200) with no significant relationship between weaning date and either FLC or FEC. No effect of weaning date on conception rate or date was observed. This study showed that pre-rut weaning date, (although confounded by weaning process management) and sub-clinical parasitism during summer and early autumn may influence LWG in young farmed deer. The failure of moxidectin to reduce FEC to zero raises the question of the efficacy of this macrocyclic lactone anthelmintic against GI nematodes in farmed deer and/or emergence of farmed deer GI nematode resistance. Potential diagnostic parameters such as serum albumin concentration, which was reduced in untreated control deer, warrant further investigation for clinical diagnostic use in farmed deer. The study also highlighted the need for further research to demonstrate the advantages or disadvantages of pre-rut weaning on growth of deer calves and hind reproduction. The 2006 grazing experiment investigated the effect of pasture species grazed on post-weaning growth and endoparasitism of farmed red deer from 3- 6 months of age. Ninety-five red deer calves were randomly allocated to five groups based on sex, LW, FEC and FLC. These calves rotationally grazed either a permanent pasture based on perennial ryegrass, chicory, narrow-leaved plantain, or one of two pasture mixes based on either a short-rotation tetraploid ryegrass (TSR-mix) or long-rotation tetraploid ryegrass (TLR-mix). Both mixes included the same white clover, red clover and chicory. All deer were initially treated with an anthelmintic (albendazole), with subsequent trigger treatment withheld until weight loss or clinical parasitism was observed. Anthelmintic trigger treatment (albendazole) was given on an individual animal basis. The anthelmintic trigger treatment and LWG data in this study suggest that plantain, TLR- and TSR-mixes and chicory may all have a role in aiding control of endoparasitism in young growing deer in autumn in deer production systems based on permanent perennial ryegrass-based pasture with low anthelmintic input. However, any potential effects of forage feeding value and anti-parasitic plant compounds of chicory, plantain and pasture-forage mixes on parasitism and growth could not be separated in this study. It is therefore acknowledged that these observations are preliminary and based on a design intended only to establish whether further replicated studies are warranted, particularly with plantain and pasture mixes. However, the study has shown that pasture species, either sown as a pure crop or in a pasture mix can influence LWG, resilience to internal parasitism and requirement for anthelmintic use in young farmed deer. Data from the first experiment (2005) has shown that pre-rut weaning date and sub-clinical parasitism during summer and early autumn can influence LWG in young farmed deer while the trigger treatment and LWG data from the second experiment (2006), suggest that plantain, TLR-and TSR-mixes and chicory may have a role in aiding control of internal parasitism in young deer in autumn. The outcome of the second experiment has application to deer production systems with low anthelmintic input. Serum protein and haematological parameters investigated in both studies demonstrated the need for further research to establish diagnostic markers for both sub-clinical and clinical internal parasitism in farmed young deer.