Metabolic engineering has enabled studying microorganisms by the modification of their genetic material and analysis of their metabolism for the isolation of microbial strains capable of producing high yields of high value chemicals and biofuels. In this research, novel tools were developed to improve genetic engineering of microbial cells. In this matter, λ-PCR (lambda-PCR) was developed enabling the construction of plasmid DNA. This technique allows DNA assembly and manipulation (insertion, substitution and/or deletion) at any location of a vector. λ-PCR addresses the need for an easy, highly-efficient, rapid and inexpensive tool for genetic engineering and overcoming limitations encountered with traditional techniques. Then, novel synthetic small RNA (sRNA) regulators were designed in a cell-free-system (in vitro) in order to modulate protein expression in biosynthetic pathways. The ability of the sRNAs to regulate mRNA expression with statistical significance was demonstrated. Up to 70% decrease in protein expression level was achieved by targeting specific secondary structures of the mRNA with antisense binding regions of the sRNA. Most importantly, a sRNA was identified capable of protein overexpression by up to 65%. An understanding of its mechanism showed that its mRNA target region(s) likely lead to occlusion of RNase E binding. This mechanism was translated for expression of a diaphorase enzyme, which has relevance to synthetic biology and metabolic engineering in in vitro systems. Results were successful, showing a greater than 75% increase in diaphorase expression in a cell-free protein synthesis reaction. Next, Raman spectroscopy was employed as a near real-time method for microbial phenotyping. Here, Raman spectroscopy was used in combination with chemometric analysis methods through RametrixTM Toolboxes to study the effects of environmental conditions (i.e. illumination, glucose, nitrate deprivation, acetate, sodium chloride and magnesium sulfate) on the phenotypic response of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803. The RametrixTM LITE Toolbox for MATLAB® enabled processing of Raman spectra and application of principal component analysis (PCA) and discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC). Two studies were performed. PCA and DAPC produces distinct clustering of Raman spectra, representing multiple Synechocystis phenotypes, based on the (i) presence of glucose in the growth medium, (ii) illumination, (iii) nitrate limitation, and (iv) throughout a circadian rhythm growth cycle, in the first study. The second study focused on the phenotypic response based on (i) growth in presence of acetate, (ii) presence of high concentrations of sodium chloride and (iii) magnesium sulfate starvation. RametrixTM PRO was applied for the validation of the DAPC models through leave-one-out method that allowed calculation of prediction accuracy, sensitivity and selectivity for an unkown Raman spectrum. Statistical tests (ANOVA and pairwise comparison) were performed on Raman spectra to identify statistically relevant changes in Synechocystis phenotypes. Next, comparison between Raman data and standardized analytical methods (GF-FID, UPLC, spectrometric assays) was established. Overall, good correlation were obtained (R > 0.7). Finally, genomic DNA libraries were enriched to isolate a deoxynivalenol detoxifying enzyme. To do this, library fragments from microorganisms was generated through oligonucleotide primed polymerase chain reaction (DOP-PCR) and transformed in a DON-sensitive yeast strain. Rounds of subculture were performed in the presence of DON and ferulic acid in order to isolate a strain capable of enzymatic degradation of DON. / Doctor of Philosophy / Metabolic engineering is the use of genetic engineering to modify microorganisms in order to produce high yields of valuable commodity chemicals. The goal of this research is to develop new methods to improve genetic modification and selection of microbial cells. The specific objectives were to: (i) develop new tools for DNA assembly and manipulation, (ii) utilize small synthetic RNA to control protein expression level, (iii) use Raman spectroscopy to study phenotypic responses to environmental changes and (iv) enrich for microorganisms that detoxify dangerous toxins. First, a new technique for DNA assembly, named λ-PCR (lambda-PCR), was developed. This method allows the easy manipulation of plasmid DNA with high-efficiency and low-cost compared to traditional techniques. Second, novel synthetic small RNA (sRNA) regulators were designed in a cell-free-system in order to modulate (downregulate or overexpress) fluorescent protein expression. Next, Raman spectroscopy was used to assess phenotypic response of cyanobacterial cells to different environmental modifications (light settings, salts, sugar, etc…). Finally, genomic library was used to discover and characterize enzymes capable of degrading a mycotoxin.

Nous nous sommes intéressés à évaluer l'influence du changement climatique sur les patrons nets de réponse des plantes aux agents pathogènes. Dans ce travail, nous avons étudié les effets de l’augmentation de la température (20°, 25° et 28°C) sur le phénotype précoces (symptômes de maladie) et sur la fitness en fin de cycle de différentes accessions et mutants de nodulation de la plante légumineuse modèle Medicago truncatula, inoculées par des souches d’agent pathogène racinaire Verticillium adaptées à des différentes températures. Le comportement des variétés de Luzerne cultivée (Medicago sativa) dans ces conditions a été également analysé. Le travail a été divisé en 3 parties. La première partie nous a permis d’identifier parmi 12 souches de Verticillium spp., une souche froide (VA1) et une souche tempérée (V31.2), avec une température optimale de 20°C et 25°C respectivement pour la croissance, la sporulation et l'agressivité sur M. truncatula. Par contre, notre collection des souches ne renfermant pas de souches adaptées à des températures plus élevées. Nous avons obtenu par mutagénèse UV de la souche V31.2 une troisième souche (AS38) chaude qui est agressive à 28°C. Dans la deuxième partie nous avons observé les symptômes de maladie pour sept accessions naturelles de M. truncatula, inoculées par ces trois souches d’agent pathogène, à trois températures 20°, 25° et 28°C et en présence de la souche Sinorhizobium meliloti RCR2011. De faibles symptômes ont été relevés pour deux accessions A17 et DZA315.16 inoculées par VA1 à 20°C. Nous avons observé une sensibilité maximale pour trois accessions (F83005.5, DZA315.16 et L321) inoculées par V31.2 à 25°C, et pour quatre accessions (F83005.5, DZA315.16, L321 et L198) inoculées par AS38 à 28°C. Les résultats des symptômes de maladie ont été confirmés par une quantification moléculaire de l’ADN fongique (qPCR) et par ré-isolement à partir des tissus aériens de la plante. L’effet de VA1 et V31.2 sur trois caractères de fitness (nombre et poids de gousse par plante, ainsi que biomasse aérienne) de M. truncatula a été étudié. L’effet de VA1 s’observe uniquement à 20°C sur l'accession A17. Par contre, V31.2 a montré un impact sur les trois caractères de fitness qui diminuent chez les accessions sensibles, ainsi que sur le nombre de gousse pour l’accession résistante L198. Dans la troisième partie nous avons analysé de la même façon pour quatre mutants de nodulation dans le fond génétique A17. Les mutants ont montré un niveau de résistance à la souche VA1 plus élevé qu’A17, quelle que soit la température étudiée. Vis à vis de la souche V31.2, à 20°C les mutants skl et hcl ont montré le même taux de symptômes qu’A17 tandis que les mutants nfp et sunn ont de taux de symptômes supérieur à celui d'A17. Ces mutants ont tous une sensibilité plus élevé à 25°C. Les résultats des symptômes de maladie ont été confirmés par le test de ré-isolement. Pour ces mutants nous montrons pour la première fois, que seul le mutant sunn (hypernodulant) à la même productivité qu’A17, quelle que soit la condition (contrôle ou inoculées) et la souche (VA1 ou V31.2) étudiée ; alors que le mutant skl (hypernodulant également) a une productivité plus faible. Les deux autres mutants déficients dans la nodulation nfp et hcl ont montré une productivité plus faible qu’A17 quelle que soit la souche et la température étudiée. Enfin une bonne similitude a été trouvée entre la réponse phénotypique précoce (symptômes de maladie) de M. truncatula et de M. sativa inoculées par Verticillium spp. Dans cette thèse, on n’est pas trouvé la corrélation positive entre la capacité de la nodulation et la protection contre la maladie, mais la symbiose augmente la fitness pour certaines de ces plantes. Les résultats suggèrent aussi que l'augmentation de la température pourrait contribuer à faire apparaître une souche adaptée à 28°C (AS38) qui est plus agressive et plus virulente que V31.2 sur M. truncatula. / We were interested to evaluate the influence of climate change on net patterns of plants responses to pathogens. In this work, we studied the effects of temperature increase (20 °, 25 ° and 28 ° C) on early phenotype (symptoms of disease) and on fitness at the end of growth cycle on different accessions and nodulation mutants of the legume model plant Medicago truncatula, inoculated by the root pathogen Verticillium adapted to different temperatures. The behavior of cultivated varieties of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) in these conditions was also analyzed. The work is divided into 3 parts. In the first part, we identified among 12 strains of Verticillium spp., a cold strain (VA1) and a temperate strain (V31.2) with an optimum temperature of growth, sporulation and aggressiveness to M. truncatula of 20°C and 25°C respectively. Since our strain collection doesn’t contain strains adapted to higher temperatures, we have obtained by UV mutagenesis of strain V31.2 a third strain (AS38), considered as a ‘hot’ strain, which is aggressive at 28°C. In the second part, we observed the symptoms of disease on seven natural accessions of M. truncatula, inoculated by the three strains of the pathogen at three temperatures 20°C, 25°C and 28°C in the presence of Sinorhizobium meliloti RCR2011. Mild symptoms were observed for two accessions A17 and DZA315.16 inoculated with VA1 at 20°C. We observed a maximal sensitivity for three accessions (F83005.5, DZA315.16 and L321) inoculated with V31.2 at 25 ° C, and for four accessions (F83005.5, DZA315.16, L321 and L198) inoculated with AS38 at 28 ° C. The results of phenotypic disease symptoms were confirmed by molecular quantification of fungal DNA (qPCR), and re-isolation of the fungus from aerial plant tissues. The effect of strains VA1 and V31.2 on three fitness traits (number and weight of pods per plant and aerial biomass) was studied. The effect negative of VA1 was observed only at 20°C on the A17 accession. In contrast, V31.2 showed an impact on the three fitness traits, which decrease in susceptible accessions, as well as on pod number of the resistant accession L198. In the third part, a similar analysis was made for four nodulation mutants in A17 genetic background. Nodulation mutants showed a higher level of resistance to VA1 than A17, at different studied temperatures. Towards strain V31.2 at 20°C the mutants skl and hcl showed the same symptom scores as A17 whereas nfp and sunn mutants had more susceptible. Mutants showed a higher sensitivity at 25°C to V31.2 fungal strain. The results of phenotypic disease symptoms were confirmed by re-isolation experiments. For the nodulation mutants we showed, for the first time, that only the sunn mutant (hypernodulant) has the same productivity as A17, regardless of the condition (inoculated or control) and the studied strain (VA1 or V31.2); while the skl mutant (hypernodulant also) has a lower productivity. The other two mutants defective in nodulation (nfp and hcl) showed lower productivity than A17 regardless of the strain (VA1 or V31.2) and the temperature studied. Finally, a strong similarity was found between the early phenotypic response symptoms disease in M. truncatula and M. sativa inoculated by Verticillium spp. In this thesis, we didn’t find a positive correlation between the ability of nodulation and protection against the disease, however the symbiosis increases the fitness of some of these plants. The results also suggest that increasing temperatures could favour appearance a strain adapted to 28°C (AS38), which is more aggressive and more virulent than V31.2 on M. truncatula.