Agonist-stimulated phosphoinositide (PPI) hydrolysis is a major signal transduction pathway in brain. These studies investigated neurotransmitter stimulated PPI hydrolysis in postmortem human brain. Preliminary studies using rat brain suggested that moderate postmortem delay has little effect on PPI hydrolysis and that human tissue might be reliably studied for differences in receptor-PLC coupling. Studies in human brain membranes (frontal cortex) indicated that the time course for GTPγS and carbachol/GTPγS-stimulated PPI hydrolysis was linear for at least 20 min. GTPγS-stimulated [3H] inositol phosphate (InsP) formation was enhanced by carbachol (232%) and 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5HT - 147%). SAX-HPLC seperation of [3H] inositol polyphosphates indicated that the major isomer of inositol trisphosphate (InsP3) was Ins(1,4,5)P3, the expected product of PtdIns(4,5)P2 hydrolysis. Ca2+ increased PPI hydrolysis progressively from 100 nM through 50 μM and synergistically enhanced carbachol/GTPγS stimulation. Comparisons of age-matched controls with Alzheimer's patients indicated that GTPγS, carbachol/GTPγS, and 5HT/GTPγS-stimulation of PPI hydrolysis is reduced approximately 50% in membranes prepared from Alzheimer's patients. Ca2+ stimulation of PPI hydrolysis was not different between controls and Alzheimer's patients suggesting that muscarinic cholinergic and serotonergic receptors are uncoupled from PLC in Alzheimer's disease. These studies indicate that there are changes in cholinergic and serotonergic signal transduction in Alzheimer's disease. Further, this method can be used to study signal transduction events in postmortem human brain.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is typified by a robust microglial-mediated immune response. Genetic studies have demonstrated that many genes that alter AD risk are involved in the innate immune response and are primarily expressed in microglia. Among these genes is phospholipase C gamma 2 (PLCG2), a critical element for various immune receptors and a key regulatory hub for immune signaling. PLCG2 genetic variants are associated with altered AD risk. The primary objective of this thesis was to determine the role of PLCG2 in AD pathogenesis. We observed significant upregulation of PLCG2 expression in three brain regions of late-onset AD (LOAD) patients and a significant positive correlation of PLCG2 expression with amyloid plaque density. Furthermore, the differential gene expression analysis highlighted inflammatory response-related pathways. These results suggest that PLCG2 plays an important role in AD. We systematically investigated the impact of PLCG2 haploinsufficiency on the microglial response and amyloid pathology in the amyloidogenic 5xFAD mouse model. The results demonstrated that Plcg2 haploinsufficiency altered the phenotype of plaqueassociated microglia, suppressed cytokine levels, increased compact X34-positive plaque deposition, and downregulated the expression of microglial genes associated with immune cell activation and phagocytosis. Our study highlights the role of PLCG2 in immune responses; loss of function of PLCG2 exacerbates the amyloid pathology of AD. Genetic studies demonstrated that the hypermorphic P522R variant is protective and that the loss of function M28L variant confers an elevated risk for AD. Our results demonstrated that PLCG2 variants modulate disease pathologies through specific transcriptional programs. In the presence of amyloid pathology, the M28L risk variant impaired microglial response to plaques, suppressed cytokine release, downregulated disease-associated microglial genes, and increased plaque deposition. However, microglia harboring the P522R variant exhibit a transcriptional response endowing them with a protective immune response signature linked to their association with plaques and Aβ clearance, attenuating disease pathogenesis in an amyloidogenic mouse model of AD. Collectively, our study provides evidence that the M28L variant is associated with accelerated and exacerbated disease-related pathology, and conversely, the P522R variant appeared to attenuate disease severity and progression. / 2024-10-03

Secreted phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is an interfacial enzyme that catalyzes the calcium-dependent hydrolysis of glycerophospholipids to free fatty acids and lyso-phospholipid, which are further converted to eicosanoids and platelet activating factor with broad biological activities. PLA2 is inactive in solution, but undergoes interfacial activation upon binding to biological membranes. Despite extensive studies on secreted PLA2s, the structural basis for interfacial activation and the effects of site-directed mutations remain largely uncharacterized. Two mutants of human group IIA PLA2, with tryptophans incorporated at the 3rd or 5th position in the N-terminal helix, display dramatic differences in activity compared to the wildtype enzyme. This project analyzes the distinct structural changes that occur in PLA2 and two Trp-mutants during interfacial activation, which are responsible for the observed disparities in activity. Additionally, the thermal stability of both mutants was determined in order to explore possible correlations between resistance to thermal denaturation and enzymatic activity. The V3W mutant shows enhanced activity and a higher optimal temperature compared to the wildtype, which may be promoted at least partially by the high affinity of tryptophan for the lipid-aqueous interface. Contrastingly, the FSW enzyme, which has a tryptophan within the substrate-binding pocket, displays greatly diminished activity compared to both the wild-type and V3W mutant, suggesting inefficient loading of substrate. Circular dichroism and fluorescence studies reveal that the differences in activity of the mutants result from distinct structural changes upon activation. Furthermore, thermal denaturation of V3W was partially reversible, whereas F5W showed no recovery of secondary structure following decrease of temperature. Thus, tryptophan incorporation at two close positions modulates the activity of PLA2 in strikingly different ways, which are associated with defined changes in the secondary structure and the thermal stability of the enzyme. Our results may find industrial or pharmaceutical applications, such as production of fatty acids or development of antibacterial agents.

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Les médiateurs lipidiques de l'inflammation comprennent plusieurs familles de molécules biologiquement actives, incluant le leucotriène B₄ (LTB₄) et le facteur activant les plaquettes (PAF). Ces médiateurs s'avèrent être particulièrement importants dans la pathogenèse de maladies inflammatoires comme l'arthrite. Effectivement, ils participent directement au recrutement et à l'activation des neutrophiles au site inflammatoire. La biosynthèse du LTB₄ et du PAF implique la phospholipase A₂ de groupe IVA (cPLA₂α); en effet, cette enzyme libère les substrats nécessaires à la biosynthèse de ces médiateurs à partir des phospholipides membranaires. Les mécanismes de régulation de la cPLA₂α sont encore aujourd'hui peu compris. Cette présente étude visait à mieux comprendre et à élucider de nouveaux mécanismes de régulation de la cPLA₂α, première enzyme impliquée dans la biosynthèse du LTB₄ et du PAF dans les neutrophiles humains. Les résultats démontrent que, dans les neutrophiles humains, l'activité de la cPLA₂α est inhibée par son produit, l'acide arachidonique (AA) et que l'AA induit la translocation de l'enzyme aux membranes. Nos résultats suggèrent également une interaction directe du produit (AA) avec l'enzyme et que cette interaction se fait probablement au site catalytique. Les résultats de cette étude ont permis de révéler un nouveau mécanisme de régulation de la cPLA₂α jamais identifié, la régulation négative de la cPLA₂α par l'AA. Le site d'interaction de l'AA sur l'enzyme lors de cette régulation reste à être confirmé.

Les précurseurs des lymphocytes T appelés thymocytes se développent dans le thymus, un organe lymphoïde primaire, via différents processus de sélections aboutissant à l’élimination par apoptose de ceux qui sont inutiles ou dangereux (autoréactifs). Le développement des thymocytes nécessite de nombreuses molécules comme les cytokines et les chimiokines. Bien que le rôle des médiateurs lipidiques dans l’immunité soit bien décrit, leur rôle dans la maturation des thymocytes l’est peu. Nous avons étudié le rôle de la phospholipase A2 cytosolique du groupe IVA (cPLA2α), une enzyme clé pour la biosynthèse des médiateurs lipidiques, dans le développement des thymocytes. En utilisant des approches génétiques (délétion de la cPLA2α) et pharmacologiques (utilisation d’un inhibiteur de la cPLA2α, la pyrrophénone) nous montrons que la maturation des thymocytes se déroule indépendamment de la cPLA2α suggérant que la plupart des produits dérivés de l’acide arachidonique ne sont pas nécessaires au développement des thymocytes. Au cours des processus de sélections dans le thymus, environ 98% des thymocytes sont éliminés par apoptose. Des études ont montré que le lysophosphatidylcholine, obtenu suite au clivage d’un phospholipide membranaire par une phospholipase A2, permet une élimination efficace des cellules apoptotiques. Nous avons étudié le rôle des phospholipases A2 sécrétées (sPLA2) IIA, V et X dans l’élimination des thymocytes apoptotiques. Ces enzymes sont exprimées dans le thymus mais leur fonction est pour le moment inconnue. Nous montrons in vitro que toutes les sPLA2 testées, excepté la IIA humaine, éliminent les thymocytes apoptotiques et que ceci est dépendant de leur activité enzymatique. De nombreuses études ont émis l’hypothèse que les sPLA2 peuvent affecter la détection et la quantification des microparticules (MPs) formées suite à l’activation cellulaire ou l’apoptose. Nous observons que les sPLA2 V et X humaines éliminent partiellement les MPs de thymocytes apoptotiques humains (il y a une grande quantité de thymocytes apoptotiques dans le thymus) mais pas celles de d’autres origines cellulaires. Nous montrons également que certaines sPLA2 affectent la détection et la quantification des MPs selon l’espèce étudiée, l’origine cellulaire des MPs et le moyen de détection employé. Finalement l’impact de ces enzymes est dépendant de leur activité enzymatique. / T cell precursors called thymocytes develop in the thymus, a primary lymphoid organ, by different selection processes that eliminate by apoptosis useless or dangerous (auto reactive) thymocytes. Numerous molecules such as cytokines and chemokines are needed for thymocyte development. While the roles of eicosanoids in immunity are described their role in thymocyte maturation remains uncertain. We have studied the role of the cytosolic phospholipase A2 of group IVA (cPLA2α), a key enzyme in lipid mediator biosynthesis, in thymocyte development. Using genetic (deletion of cPLA2α) and pharmacological approaches (using an inhibitor, pyrrophenone) we demonstrate that thymocyte maturation occurs independently of cPLA2α suggesting that most arachidonic acid metabolites are dispensable in thymocyte development. During selection processes occurring in the thymus, around 98% of thymocytes are eliminated by apoptosis. Studies demonstrated that the lysophosphatidylcholine, produced by phospholipase A2 hydrolysis of membrane phospholipids, induces an efficient elimination of apoptotic cells. We investigated the role of secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) IIA, V and X in the clearance of apoptotic thymocytes. These enzymes are expressed in the thymus but their functions in this organ are currently unknown. In vitro, we demonstrated that all sPLA2 tested, except the human IIA, eliminate apoptotic thymocytes and that their enzymatic activity is required. Several studies have hypothesized that the sPLA2 could affect the detection and quantification of microparticles (MPs) produced during cell activation or apoptosis. We demonstrated that human sPLA2 V and X eliminate partially apoptotic thymocyte (there are many apoptotic thymocytes in thymus) MPs but not the MPs of other cellular origins. We also observed that certain sPLA2 enzymes impair the quantification of microparticles, depending on the species studied, the cellular source of microparticles and the means of detection employed. Finally, the sPLA2 impact on MPs is dependent on their enzymatic activity.

La flore intestinale, composée de l’ensemble des microorganismes retrouvés dans le tractus digestif, joue un rôle essentiel dans le développement et l’homéostasie du système immunitaire. Son altération est associée à de multiples maladies inflammatoires ayant des répercussions non seulement à l’intestin, mais bien dans l’ensemble de l’organisme. Les causes de cette dérégulation restent toutefois méconnues. Parmi les multiples facteurs susceptibles de moduler sa composition, on retrouve plusieurs enzymes bactéricides produites à l’intestin. L’une de ces protéines, la phospholipase A2-IIA sécrétée (sPLA2-IIA), est fortement surexprimée en condition inflammatoire. Nous avons émis l’hypothèse que la surexpression de la sPLA2-IIA à l’intestin au cours de maladies inflammatoires pourrait altérer la composition de la flore intestinale, contribuant ainsi à la physiopathologie de ces maladies. L’utilisation de souris surexprimant la sPLA2-IIA humaine (sPLA2-IIATGN) nous a permis d’observer l’apparition spontanée d’un désordre immunitaire encore jamais caractérisé dans ce modèle. En nous intéressant à l’impact de cette enzyme sur la flore intestinale, nous avons pu identifier plusieurs altérations dans le microbiome de ces souris. Nos résultats suggèrent également que l’environnement, et plus spécifiquement le microbiote intestinal, joue un important rôle dans le développement de ce désordre immunitaire. Nos résultats suggèrent que la modulation de l’inflammation systémique par la sPLA2-IIA est dépendante de la flore intestinale. / The mammalian digestive tract harbors trillions of microorganisms that collectively form the intestinal microbiota. This flora has been shown to play a prominent role in the development and homeostasis of the immune system. As such, its alteration was associated with a wide array of inflammatory diseases with intestinal and systemic afflictions. However, the cause of this unbalance remains poorly understood. While the intestinal flora may be regulated by a large number of environmental factors, multiple endogenous intestinal enzymes have been shown or proposed to play an important part in the shaping of its composition. One of those enzymes, the secreted phospholipase A2-IIA (sPLA2-IIA), possesses great bactericidal properties and is overexpressed during multiple inflammatory disorders. We hypothesized that the overexpression of sPLA2-IIA in the intestine during inflammatory processes could alter the composition of the intestinal microbiota, thereby contributing to the pathophysiology of those diseases. To verify this hypothesis, we used transgenic mice overexpressing the human sPLA2- IIA (sPLA2-IIATGN) and observed a yet uncharacterized spontaneous immune disorder in this model. We aimed to evaluate the impact of sPLA2-IIA on the intestinal flora in this model. We identified multiple alterations in the microbiome of sPLA2-IIATGN mice. Our results also suggest that the environment, and more specifically the intestinal microbiota, play a prominent role in the development of this immune disorder. Our results suggest that the modulation of systemic inflammation by sPLA2-IIA is dependent upon the intestinal flora.