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The area of methanol synthesis and utilization has been attracting research interests due to its positive impact on the environment and also from energy perspectives. Methanol synthesis from CO₂ hydrogenation not only produces methanol which is a key platform chemical and a clean fuel, but can also recycle CO₂ which is one of the major greenhouse gases causing global warming. As a mobile energy carrier (particularly as a hydrogen carrier), methanol is a versatile molecule which is able to generate H₂ via its decomposition. Catalysis plays a decisive role in the success of both methanol synthesis from CO₂ hydrogenation and its reverse decomposition reaction. Pd/Ga₂O₃ binary catalyst has recently been identified as an active catalyst for the methanol synthesis reaction. In this thesis, it is reported the shape effect of Pd promoted Ga₂O₃ for this reaction. The catalytic H₂ evolution from methanol photodecomposition has also been studied over these catalysts. Three shapes of Ga₂O</sub>3</sub> nanomaterials (i.e. rod and plate β-Ga₂O</sub>3</sub>, and particle γ-Ga₂O₃) have been synthesized, followed by doping with Pd metal to form corresponding Pd/Ga₂O₃ nanocatalysts. It was found that a (002) polar Ga2O3 surface which was dominantly presented on the plate form was unstable, giving a higher degree of oxygen defects and mobile electrons in the conduction band than the other non-polar (111) and (110) surfaces of the rod form. It was shown that a significantly stronger metal support interaction was found between the (002) polar Ga₂O₃ on the plate form and Pd, which gave higher methanol yield and selectivity. For methanol photodecomposition, it was found that, for pure Ga₂O₃ catalysts of different shapes, the plate form with a highest degree of defects (unstable polar surface) could encourage a non-radiative catalytic recombination of electron and hole pairs upon irradiation, hence giving a highest photocatalytic activity for H₂ production. Once Pd was introduced onto these oxide surfaces, it was noted that there was a fast and readily electron transfer from the conduction band of Ga₂O₃ to Pd due to the formation of a Schottky junction between the two materials. This produces metal sites for hydrogen production and further enhances the rate of the photocatalytic reaction over the radiative recombination of excitons. However, it was also found that at higher Pd content (>1%), the significantly shortened exciton lifetimes reduce the catalytic rate hence giving an overall volcanic response of activity to increasing Pd content for each shape of Ga₂O₃. At the higher Pd content, the plate form appeared to sustain a longer lifetime for photocatalysis compared to the other forms at the equivalent Pd loading.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Chemistry / Sundeep Rayat / Research in our laboratory has focused on designing photoactivated DNA cleaving agents based on tetrazolethione scaffolds. The key step in the activation of these involves conversion of tetrazolethione moiety to carbodiimides upon irradiation. However, the mechanism of this reaction was not previously reported. Therefore, we undertook a study to elucidate the mechanism of photodecomposition of tetrazolethione as to identify reactive intermediates involved, that may interfere or aid with the activity of our synthesized DNA cleaving agents under physiological conditions. In Part 1 of this dissertation, we present mechanistic studies on this photodecomposition. Our results indicate the clean photoconversion of tetrazolethiones I to their respective carbodiimides IV via the expulsion of sulfur and dinitrogen. Photoirradiation in the presence of trapping agent (e.g. 1,4-cyclohexadiene) resulted into the formation of their corresponding thioureas. Thus, providing strong evidence for the intermediacy of a 1,3-biradical III, which is believed to be in its triplet spin multiplicity. Further investigations (triplet sensitization and quenching experiments) to determine the precursor of the biradical argued against the involvement of a triplet excited state (T[subscript]1). We believe that the mechanistic pathway that leads to the formation of a 1,3-triplet biradical III is a diradicaloid species II-II" generated directly from the singlet excited state of tetrazolethiones (S[subscript]1) after the expulsion of dinitrogen. Once formed, this diradicaloid species could be envisioned to undergo intersystem crossing to generate the 1,3 triplet biradical III which then undergoes desulfurization to form carbodiimides IV (Chapter 2). Bridgehead-nitrogen containing fused heterocycles are regarded as “privileged structure” in biology and have found widespread applications in pharmaceutical industry. These heterocycles have also been evaluated in electroluminescent devices and organic dyes. Part II of the dissertation present new, concise and low cost strategies to a unique class of bridgehead nitrogen-containing fused heterocyclic scaffolds which involves two sequential intramolecular cyclizations from heteroenyne-allenes in the presence of Lewis acids such as SnCl[subscript]4 and BF[subscript]3.OEt[subscript]2, and trace water. The starting heteroenyne-allenes VI can be prepared from commercially available substrates V in 4 – 5 steps following standard protocols (Chapter 3). Furthermore, we employed density functional theory to gain insights into the optoelectronic properties of select derivatives of phenanthridine-fused quinazoliniminiums (PNQs) VII and their free base in order to evaluate their scope in OLED technology. Our results show that the energies of the Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO), Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO), the HOMO-LUMO energy gaps, the ionization potentials, electron affinities and the reorganization energies can be finely tuned by varying the substituents on these chromophores. In addition, we found that the introduction of an electron donating group (NMe[subscript]2) on the PNQs and their free base increases the energies of the HOMOs and decreases the ionization potentials, relative to its unsubstituted derivative, whereas substitution by an electron withdrawing group (NO[subscript]2) decreases the energies of the LUMOs and increases the electron affinities which in turn suggests an improvement in their hole and electron creating abilities, respectively (Chapter 4).

Foram sintetizadas duas novas classes de porfirinas aquosolúveis pela quaternização dos resíduos piridínicos da TPyP empregando halelos de benzila e alila. Os produtos dessas reações de quaternização TBzPyP e TAlPyP. são mais facilmenle obtidos que a TMPyP, exingindo menores tempos de reação e menores quantidades de agente alquilante para que a quaternização total da TPyP seja efetuada. Esse procedimento surge como uma rota alternativa para a obtenção de porfirinas aquosolúvei s e vale-se da alta estabilidade dos cátions benzílicos e alílicos. Os respectivos complexos de zinco e paládio foram obtidos da reação de quaternização de ZnTPyP e PdTPyP ou por reações de metalação de TBzPyP e TAlPyP. As bases livres e os metalocomplexos foram estudados quanto às suas propriedades espectroscópicas, eletroquímicas e fotoquímicas. Os novos derivados apresentam deslocamentos batocrômicos das posições dos máximos de absorção e emissão se comparados com a série metil-piridil substituída, indicando a existência de efeitos eletrônicos e vibracionais dos substituintes sobre o sistema &#928; do macrociclo. Os dados espectroscópicos mostram evidências de que as bases livres encontram-se em solução aquosa no estado agregado, provavelmenle formando dímeros em concentrações superiores a cerca de 6.0 x 10-7 M. A presença de detergentes aniônicos altera significamente tanto a posição dos máximos de absorção como de emissão mostrando que além dos aspectos eletrostáticos fatores hidrofôbicos-hidrofílicos fazem-se presentes na interação de surfactantes com os derivados porfirínicos. C comportamento eletroquímico dos derivados benzílicos e alílicos também é diferenciado com relação aos derivados metílicos, sendo observadas maiores separações entre os picos anódico e catódico. Estas diferenças devem-se, provavelmente ao maior caráter hidrofóbico destes derivados, que originam interações específicas nos processos eletródicos. Os tempos de vida do estado excitado triplete das zinco porfirinas, ZnTMPyP, ZnTBzPyP e ZnTAlPyP foram medidos utilizando-se a técnica de flash-photolysis, sendo que todas apresentam tempos de vida da ordem de 1 ms. A fim de estudar reações de transferência de elétrons fotoinduzidas entre os novos derivados porfirínicos e aceptores adequados em sistemas de clivagem da água (p. ex. metilviologênio), catalisadores coloidais de platina foram preparados pela redução de Pt(IV) ou Pt(II) a Pt(O), e as dimensões do colóide foram estimadas por microscopia eletrônica, sendo obtidas partículas coloidais de 30-40 &#197;. A concentração de platina foi determinada por emissão atômica, ou por complexiometria. Estudou-se a interação de porfirinas e metaloporfirinas com o polímero sintético da melanina, utilizando-se a técnica de emissão de fluorescência. Verificou-se que a presença de metais coordenados à porfirina assim como a presença de grupos com maior caráter hidrofôbico acentuam a interação implicando em maior especificidade destes derivados, característica essa apropriada para a utilização destas moléculas em terapia fotodinâmica. Foi determinada a CMC em pH = 1,00 de um derivado porfirínico surfactante, sendo que a partir de 1,0 x 10-4 M ocorre a micelização. Este é o primeiro exemplo de auto-agregação de uma porfirina sintética em um meio onde não participam solventes orgânicos. / In the present work two new classes of water soluble porphyrins were prepared by the quaternization of the TPyP pyridynic groups employng benzyl and allyl halides. The products of these quaternization reactions, TBzPyP and TAlPyP, are easier to obtain than TMPyP because they require smaller amounts of alkylating agents and a less period of reaction to achive the pyridinic quaternization. This method is an alternative route in obtaining water soluble porphyrins and is based on the high stability of the benzylic and allylic cation. The corresponding zinc and palladium complexes were obtanained by quaternization reactions of ZnTPyP and PdTPyP or by metallation reactions of TBzPyP and TAlPyP. The free bases and metallocomplexes studies were carried out taking to account their spectroscopic electrochemical and photochemical properties. The new derivatives exhibit bathocromic shifts in the absorption and emission position bands when compared with the methyl-pyridynium derivatives these data indicate the existence of elect.ronic and vibrational effects of the substituents on the macrociclic &#928; system. The espectroscopic data show evidences that the free bases are like aggregates in aqueous solution, probably forming dimers in the concentration range of 5,0 x 10-7 M. The presence of anionic detergents alter deeply the spectroscopic properties, showing that hidrophobic-hidrophylic factors in addition of eletrostatic factors are present, in the interaction of the surfactant with the porphyrinic derivatives. The electrochemical behavior of the benzylic and allylic derivatives are different when compared with the methylic derivatives, were it was observed greater separation between the anodic and cathodic peaks. The observed differences are probably due to specific interactions of the more hidrophobic derivatives in eletrode processes. The triplet excited state lifetimes of the zinc derivatives, ZnTMPyP, ZnTBzPyP e ZnTAlPyP mesured employng f\'lash-photolysis thecnics were c.a. 1 ms. The synthesis of coloidal platinum catalyst was achived by slight modification of the literature methods, and the size of the majority particules determined by electron microscopy are around 30-40 A. The int.eract.ion between porphyrins and metalloporphyrins wilh the synthetic melanin polymer was studied employng fluorescence emisson. The presence of coordinate metals and the presence of more hidrophobic groups attached at the porphyrin ring originate greater specificity by the polymer, which make them possible photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy. It was also determined the CMC of a surfactant funtionalyzed zinc porphyrin in aqueous medium at. pH = 1,00. This derivative form micellar assemblies at 1,0 x 10-4 M, and is the first example of self aggregation of a synthetic porphyrin in a non-organic medium.

Foram sintetizadas duas novas classes de porfirinas aquosolúveis pela quaternização dos resíduos piridínicos da TPyP empregando halelos de benzila e alila. Os produtos dessas reações de quaternização TBzPyP e TAlPyP. são mais facilmenle obtidos que a TMPyP, exingindo menores tempos de reação e menores quantidades de agente alquilante para que a quaternização total da TPyP seja efetuada. Esse procedimento surge como uma rota alternativa para a obtenção de porfirinas aquosolúvei s e vale-se da alta estabilidade dos cátions benzílicos e alílicos. Os respectivos complexos de zinco e paládio foram obtidos da reação de quaternização de ZnTPyP e PdTPyP ou por reações de metalação de TBzPyP e TAlPyP. As bases livres e os metalocomplexos foram estudados quanto às suas propriedades espectroscópicas, eletroquímicas e fotoquímicas. Os novos derivados apresentam deslocamentos batocrômicos das posições dos máximos de absorção e emissão se comparados com a série metil-piridil substituída, indicando a existência de efeitos eletrônicos e vibracionais dos substituintes sobre o sistema &#928; do macrociclo. Os dados espectroscópicos mostram evidências de que as bases livres encontram-se em solução aquosa no estado agregado, provavelmenle formando dímeros em concentrações superiores a cerca de 6.0 x 10-7 M. A presença de detergentes aniônicos altera significamente tanto a posição dos máximos de absorção como de emissão mostrando que além dos aspectos eletrostáticos fatores hidrofôbicos-hidrofílicos fazem-se presentes na interação de surfactantes com os derivados porfirínicos. C comportamento eletroquímico dos derivados benzílicos e alílicos também é diferenciado com relação aos derivados metílicos, sendo observadas maiores separações entre os picos anódico e catódico. Estas diferenças devem-se, provavelmente ao maior caráter hidrofóbico destes derivados, que originam interações específicas nos processos eletródicos. Os tempos de vida do estado excitado triplete das zinco porfirinas, ZnTMPyP, ZnTBzPyP e ZnTAlPyP foram medidos utilizando-se a técnica de flash-photolysis, sendo que todas apresentam tempos de vida da ordem de 1 ms. A fim de estudar reações de transferência de elétrons fotoinduzidas entre os novos derivados porfirínicos e aceptores adequados em sistemas de clivagem da água (p. ex. metilviologênio), catalisadores coloidais de platina foram preparados pela redução de Pt(IV) ou Pt(II) a Pt(O), e as dimensões do colóide foram estimadas por microscopia eletrônica, sendo obtidas partículas coloidais de 30-40 &#197;. A concentração de platina foi determinada por emissão atômica, ou por complexiometria. Estudou-se a interação de porfirinas e metaloporfirinas com o polímero sintético da melanina, utilizando-se a técnica de emissão de fluorescência. Verificou-se que a presença de metais coordenados à porfirina assim como a presença de grupos com maior caráter hidrofôbico acentuam a interação implicando em maior especificidade destes derivados, característica essa apropriada para a utilização destas moléculas em terapia fotodinâmica. Foi determinada a CMC em pH = 1,00 de um derivado porfirínico surfactante, sendo que a partir de 1,0 x 10-4 M ocorre a micelização. Este é o primeiro exemplo de auto-agregação de uma porfirina sintética em um meio onde não participam solventes orgânicos. / In the present work two new classes of water soluble porphyrins were prepared by the quaternization of the TPyP pyridynic groups employng benzyl and allyl halides. The products of these quaternization reactions, TBzPyP and TAlPyP, are easier to obtain than TMPyP because they require smaller amounts of alkylating agents and a less period of reaction to achive the pyridinic quaternization. This method is an alternative route in obtaining water soluble porphyrins and is based on the high stability of the benzylic and allylic cation. The corresponding zinc and palladium complexes were obtanained by quaternization reactions of ZnTPyP and PdTPyP or by metallation reactions of TBzPyP and TAlPyP. The free bases and metallocomplexes studies were carried out taking to account their spectroscopic electrochemical and photochemical properties. The new derivatives exhibit bathocromic shifts in the absorption and emission position bands when compared with the methyl-pyridynium derivatives these data indicate the existence of elect.ronic and vibrational effects of the substituents on the macrociclic &#928; system. The espectroscopic data show evidences that the free bases are like aggregates in aqueous solution, probably forming dimers in the concentration range of 5,0 x 10-7 M. The presence of anionic detergents alter deeply the spectroscopic properties, showing that hidrophobic-hidrophylic factors in addition of eletrostatic factors are present, in the interaction of the surfactant with the porphyrinic derivatives. The electrochemical behavior of the benzylic and allylic derivatives are different when compared with the methylic derivatives, were it was observed greater separation between the anodic and cathodic peaks. The observed differences are probably due to specific interactions of the more hidrophobic derivatives in eletrode processes. The triplet excited state lifetimes of the zinc derivatives, ZnTMPyP, ZnTBzPyP e ZnTAlPyP mesured employng f\'lash-photolysis thecnics were c.a. 1 ms. The synthesis of coloidal platinum catalyst was achived by slight modification of the literature methods, and the size of the majority particules determined by electron microscopy are around 30-40 A. The int.eract.ion between porphyrins and metalloporphyrins wilh the synthetic melanin polymer was studied employng fluorescence emisson. The presence of coordinate metals and the presence of more hidrophobic groups attached at the porphyrin ring originate greater specificity by the polymer, which make them possible photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy. It was also determined the CMC of a surfactant funtionalyzed zinc porphyrin in aqueous medium at. pH = 1,00. This derivative form micellar assemblies at 1,0 x 10-4 M, and is the first example of self aggregation of a synthetic porphyrin in a non-organic medium.

The kinetics of drugs photodegradation have traditionally been treated using thermal kinetic analysis methods consisting most commonly in zero and first order kinetics. These treatment strategies were shown to lack specificity and present a number of limitations when applied to photoreactions kinetics. Nevertheless, these methods have widely been used due to a lack of integrated rate-laws for the majority of photoreactions types, in turn, due to the presence of a variable time-dependent factor in most photoreactions rate-laws that prevents their mathematical integration. To address these limitations, a new methodology for the development and validation of semi-empirical integrated rate-laws that faithfully describe photoreactions kinetics and photoreactions simulated cases generated by numerical integration methods (NIMs), is hereby presented. Using this methodology, a new kinetic order was ascribed to photoreactions namely the Φ-order kinetics. Semi-empirical integrated rate-laws were, thus, developed for three photoreaction types namely, unimolecular, AB(1Φ), photoreversible ,AB(2Φ), and consecutive, AB4(4Φ), photoreactions. The proposed models were further tested experimentally on drugs following these photodegradation mechanisms using; nifedipine and nisoldipine for unimolecular photoreactions; montelukast and fluvoxamine for photoreversible reactions; and riboflavin for consecutive photoreactions. The developed models not only accurately described the photoreaction kinetics of these drugs but also allowed the determination of all the kinetic parameters that characterise them. Furthermore, the above studied drugs were shown to act as precise and simple actinometers when analytically treated with the Φ-order kinetic methods, hereby presented. A universal standard method for the precise and worldwide reproducible study of drugs stability and compounds photoreactions, based on monochromatic irradiation and Φ-kinetics data analysis, is also detailed and adopted throughout the thesis. Finally, two new kinetic parameters namely, the pseudo-rate-constant and pseudo-initial velocity have been identified and shown to be more reliable and accurate in the description and universal comparison of photoreactions kinetics.