<P> The general purpose of this dissertation was to use a psychobiological approach to examine the psychosocial, biological and behavioural factors associated with social physique anxiety (SPA) in women. With this perspective in mind, the broad objectives of the present dissertation were as follows: (1) to examine the relationship between social physique anxiety and cortisol, (2) to implement an exercise intervention to change social physique anxiety and cortisol, and (3) to understand the mechanisms responsible for exercise-induced changes in social physique anxiety. </p> <P> Specifically, in Study 1, the purpose was to experimentally manipulate physique evaluative threat in a controlled laboratory setting to determine if physique evaluative threat (i.e., social physique anxiety; SPA) produces concomitant changes in cortisol secretion. Additionally, this study examined if perceptions of physique evaluative threat were related to cortisol responses. Participants were 50 women who were randomly assigned to an experimental, or a control condition. Results indicated that post-manipulation, the experimental condition had higher cortisol levels than the control condition. Furthermore, regression analyses indicated that a post-manipulation measure of physique evaluative threat explained 7.2% of the variance in post-manipulation cortisol levels. Taken together, these findings suggest that acute changes in physique evaluative threat cause changes in cortisol levels and provide an empirical basis for studying cortisol's role in body image disturbance and related pathologies (e.g., eating disorders). </P> <P> In Study 2, a controlled experimental design was used to compare the effects of an 8- week exercise (aerobic versus resistance) training intervention on changes in SPA and changes in cortisol. In addition, this study examined the physical and psychosocial mechanisms underlying the effects of exercise training on SPA and explored the possible protective effects of exercise training on state SPA and cortisol responses to an acute physique evaluative threat situation. Forty six women were randomly assigned to one of two exercise conditions: aerobic or resistance training. Analyses indicated that the aerobic condition experienced greater improvements in trait SPA than the resistance training condition and both groups exhibited significant decreases in cortisol levels (compared to baseline). In addition, changes in aerobic self-efficacy and perceived physical endurance partially mediated the effect of the exercise intervention on trait SPA. Finally, the results demonstrated that 8-weeks of exercise training (regardless of mode) may buffer the state SPA response to a physique evaluative threat manipulation. </p> <P> In summary, these studies provide a broader understanding of the factors associated with SPA. The results demonstrated that for women, situations that elicit physique evaluative threat elicit concomitant changes in cortisol. Exercise training is an effective strategy for improving SPA, reducing cortisol responses, and possibly providing a protective effect against the state SPA response among young women. Aerobic exercise training is more effective for improving SPA than resistance training and this is due in part to increases in aerobic self-efficacy and perceived physical endurance. The dissertation studies provide momentum for extending the scope of research on SPA and for determining the best approach for improving SPA among women. </p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The purpose of this study was to explore how adolescent female athletes cope with social physique anxiety (SPA) within the context of sport. The participants of this study were 73 female athletes ranging in age from 13 to 19 years (M = 15.5, SD = 1.7). The participants provided coping responses to a self-identified situation within sport in which they experienced SPA. Measures of state and trait SPA, coping function, coping effectiveness, and reasons for sport participation were also completed. <p>The female adolescent athletes reported a total of 129 strategies (an average of 1.77 strategies per participant) to cope with their SPA provoking situation, with a range of 1 to 4 coping strategies identified by each participant. Social support (reported by 31.5% of participants), behavioural avoidance (reported by 23.3% of participants), short-term appearance management (reported by 23.3% of participants), humour (reported by 23.3% of participants), cognitive avoidance (reported by 19.3% of participants), and acceptance (reported by 17.8% of participants) were among the coping strategies reported by the highest number of participants. The number of open-ended coping strategies reported was significantly related to State SPA (r = .34, p < .05). Trait SPA was significantly related to avoidance coping function (r = .21, p < .05). This study supports that within the context of sport the way in which female adolescents cope with situations they experience SPA is similar, yet unique, to outside of this specific context. Most coping strategies appear to be consistent in coping with SPA across various contexts outside of sport, such as social support, acceptance, avoidance, and appearance management. It is important to note that consistent with the literature, there was much diversity in what functions were associated with various coping strategies. However, uniqueness occurred as other coping strategies emerged, such as humour, in the context of sport. This study has potential to act as a starting point to better understand the complex links among coping strategies, function, and effectiveness for adolescent females coping with SPA.

The purpose of this study was to explore how adolescent female athletes cope with social physique anxiety (SPA) within the context of sport. The participants of this study were 73 female athletes ranging in age from 13 to 19 years (M = 15.5, SD = 1.7). The participants provided coping responses to a self-identified situation within sport in which they experienced SPA. Measures of state and trait SPA, coping function, coping effectiveness, and reasons for sport participation were also completed. <p>The female adolescent athletes reported a total of 129 strategies (an average of 1.77 strategies per participant) to cope with their SPA provoking situation, with a range of 1 to 4 coping strategies identified by each participant. Social support (reported by 31.5% of participants), behavioural avoidance (reported by 23.3% of participants), short-term appearance management (reported by 23.3% of participants), humour (reported by 23.3% of participants), cognitive avoidance (reported by 19.3% of participants), and acceptance (reported by 17.8% of participants) were among the coping strategies reported by the highest number of participants. The number of open-ended coping strategies reported was significantly related to State SPA (r = .34, p < .05). Trait SPA was significantly related to avoidance coping function (r = .21, p < .05). This study supports that within the context of sport the way in which female adolescents cope with situations they experience SPA is similar, yet unique, to outside of this specific context. Most coping strategies appear to be consistent in coping with SPA across various contexts outside of sport, such as social support, acceptance, avoidance, and appearance management. It is important to note that consistent with the literature, there was much diversity in what functions were associated with various coping strategies. However, uniqueness occurred as other coping strategies emerged, such as humour, in the context of sport. This study has potential to act as a starting point to better understand the complex links among coping strategies, function, and effectiveness for adolescent females coping with SPA.

According to the Canadian Community Health Survey, fifty-nine percent of Canadian women are not getting enough exercise to receive health benefits (Canadian Fitness & Lifestyle Institute, 2001). Engaging in regular exercise has been found to provide significant psychological and physical health benefits, such as reduced depression, anxiety, and increased well-being (Bouchard, Shephard, Stephens, Sutton, & Mcpherson, 1990; Georgia State University, 1997; National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1999; Roth & Holmes, 1987). Therefore, increasing exercise participation contributes to enhancing the well-being of women. The purpose of this study was to examine how self-compassion would be related to self-determined motives to exercise and to outcomes in the exercise domain, and whether self-compassion would explain unique variance beyond self-esteem on those variables. There were two main hypotheses. First, that self-compassion would be positively related to identified, integrated, and intrinsic motives to exercise and to task goals; and negatively related to external and introjected motives to exercise, ego goals, social physique anxiety, and obligatory exercise. Second, it was hypothesized that self-compassion would predict unique variance over and above self-esteem with motivation, goal orientation, physique anxiety, and exercise behaviour. The participants were 252 adult female exercisers, ranging in age from 17 to 43 years, recruited from a small mid-western Canadian university. Participants completed an online survey including the Behavioural Regulations in Exercise Questionnaire (Wilson, Rodgers, Loitz, & Scime, 2006), Rosenbergs Self-Esteem Questionnaire (Rosenberg, 1965), the Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003b), the Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (Petherick & Markland, 2005), the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (Martin, Rejeski, Leary, McAuley, & Bane, 1997), the Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire (Pasman & Thompson, 1998), and the Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (Godin & Shepard, 1985). Correlational analyses revealed that self-compassion was positively related to intrinsic motivation (r = 0.19), and negatively related to external (r = -0.24) and introjected (r = -0.41) motivation, ego goals (r = -.20), social physique anxiety (r = -.57), and obligatory exercise behaviour (r = -.24). Hierarchical regression analyses showed that self-compassion contributed negative unique variance over and above self-esteem on introjected motivation (∆R2 = .035), ego goals (∆R2 = .028), social physique anxiety (∆R2 = .042), and obligatory exercise (∆R2 = .018). The present study provides evidence that self-compassion is related to motives to exercise and various outcomes of exercise. Further, this study extends the use of self-determination theory and supports that future research continue to explore the role of self-concept in motivation. Outcomes of well-being were found to be related to self-compassion, suggesting that perhaps self-compassion is a promising construct that may be used to foster long-term womens exercise motives.

According to the Canadian Community Health Survey, fifty-nine percent of Canadian women are not getting enough exercise to receive health benefits (Canadian Fitness & Lifestyle Institute, 2001). Engaging in regular exercise has been found to provide significant psychological and physical health benefits, such as reduced depression, anxiety, and increased well-being (Bouchard, Shephard, Stephens, Sutton, & Mcpherson, 1990; Georgia State University, 1997; National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1999; Roth & Holmes, 1987). Therefore, increasing exercise participation contributes to enhancing the well-being of women. The purpose of this study was to examine how self-compassion would be related to self-determined motives to exercise and to outcomes in the exercise domain, and whether self-compassion would explain unique variance beyond self-esteem on those variables. There were two main hypotheses. First, that self-compassion would be positively related to identified, integrated, and intrinsic motives to exercise and to task goals; and negatively related to external and introjected motives to exercise, ego goals, social physique anxiety, and obligatory exercise. Second, it was hypothesized that self-compassion would predict unique variance over and above self-esteem with motivation, goal orientation, physique anxiety, and exercise behaviour. The participants were 252 adult female exercisers, ranging in age from 17 to 43 years, recruited from a small mid-western Canadian university. Participants completed an online survey including the Behavioural Regulations in Exercise Questionnaire (Wilson, Rodgers, Loitz, & Scime, 2006), Rosenbergs Self-Esteem Questionnaire (Rosenberg, 1965), the Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003b), the Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure (Petherick & Markland, 2005), the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (Martin, Rejeski, Leary, McAuley, & Bane, 1997), the Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire (Pasman & Thompson, 1998), and the Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (Godin & Shepard, 1985). Correlational analyses revealed that self-compassion was positively related to intrinsic motivation (r = 0.19), and negatively related to external (r = -0.24) and introjected (r = -0.41) motivation, ego goals (r = -.20), social physique anxiety (r = -.57), and obligatory exercise behaviour (r = -.24). Hierarchical regression analyses showed that self-compassion contributed negative unique variance over and above self-esteem on introjected motivation (∆R2 = .035), ego goals (∆R2 = .028), social physique anxiety (∆R2 = .042), and obligatory exercise (∆R2 = .018). The present study provides evidence that self-compassion is related to motives to exercise and various outcomes of exercise. Further, this study extends the use of self-determination theory and supports that future research continue to explore the role of self-concept in motivation. Outcomes of well-being were found to be related to self-compassion, suggesting that perhaps self-compassion is a promising construct that may be used to foster long-term womens exercise motives.

<p>In modern society, individuals constantly pass judgments on their own body and physical competence as well as that of other people. All too often, the verdict is less favourable. For the person, these physical self-perceptions (PSP) may negatively affect global self-esteem, identity, and general mental well being. The overall aim of this thesis is to examine primarily the role that exercise, but also the roles that gender and culture, play in the formation of PSP. In Study I, using confirmatory factor analyses, strong support for the validity of a first-order, and a second-order hierarchical and multidimensional model of the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP: Fox & Corbin, 1989) was found across three national samples (Great Britain, Sweden and Turkey) of university students. Cross-cultural differences were detected, with the British sample demonstrating higher latent means on all PSPP subdomains except for the physical condition subdomain (Condition), than the Swedish and Turkish samples. In Study II, a higher self-reported exercise frequency was associated with more positive PSP (in particular for Condition) and more importance attributed to PSP in Swedish university students. Males demonstrated higher overall PSPP-scores than females. In Study III, a true-experimental design with randomisation into an intervention and a control group was adopted. Strong support for the effects of an empowerment-based exercise intervention programme on PSP and social physique anxiety (SPA) over six months for adolescent girls was found. The relations of exercise, gender and culture with PSP, SPA and self-esteem are discussed from the standpoints of a variety of theoretical models (the EXSEM-model), and frameworks (self-presentation and objectification theory). The two theories of self-enhancement and skill-development are examined with regard to the direction of the exercise-physical self relationship and motivation for exercise. Arguments for the relevance of exercise and PSP for practitioners in promoting general mental well-being and preventing modern-day diseases are outlined.</p>

<p>The aim for this study was to describe Social Physique Anxiety and </p><p>Self-Efficacy in the school year of 7 and 9. To that the aim for this </p><p>study was to describe if there was differences between girls and boys, </p><p>but also between the school years, when it comes to the estimation of </p><p>Social Physique Anxiety and Self-Efficacy. The method for this </p><p>report was of statistic design, with a deductive methodology who was </p><p>analysed and presented in. The empirical material was collected thru </p><p>questionnaires where the level of information was of quantitative </p><p>characteristics. The results from this study showed that girls estimate </p><p>higher Social Physique Anxiety then the boys, in school year 7 and 9. </p><p>The results also showed that boys estimated a higher Self-Efficacy </p><p>then the girls, in school year 7 and 9. The conclusion of the study was </p><p>that they who estimated high Social Physique Anxiety also estimated </p><p>a lower Self-Efficacy, independently of age. We suggest continued </p><p>research of decisive factors that effects Social Physique Anxiety and </p><p>Self-Efficacy, too increase the understanding of those factors that </p><p>affects an individual’s health.</p>

In modern society, individuals constantly pass judgments on their own body and physical competence as well as that of other people. All too often, the verdict is less favourable. For the person, these physical self-perceptions (PSP) may negatively affect global self-esteem, identity, and general mental well being. The overall aim of this thesis is to examine primarily the role that exercise, but also the roles that gender and culture, play in the formation of PSP. In Study I, using confirmatory factor analyses, strong support for the validity of a first-order, and a second-order hierarchical and multidimensional model of the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP: Fox &amp; Corbin, 1989) was found across three national samples (Great Britain, Sweden and Turkey) of university students. Cross-cultural differences were detected, with the British sample demonstrating higher latent means on all PSPP subdomains except for the physical condition subdomain (Condition), than the Swedish and Turkish samples. In Study II, a higher self-reported exercise frequency was associated with more positive PSP (in particular for Condition) and more importance attributed to PSP in Swedish university students. Males demonstrated higher overall PSPP-scores than females. In Study III, a true-experimental design with randomisation into an intervention and a control group was adopted. Strong support for the effects of an empowerment-based exercise intervention programme on PSP and social physique anxiety (SPA) over six months for adolescent girls was found. The relations of exercise, gender and culture with PSP, SPA and self-esteem are discussed from the standpoints of a variety of theoretical models (the EXSEM-model), and frameworks (self-presentation and objectification theory). The two theories of self-enhancement and skill-development are examined with regard to the direction of the exercise-physical self relationship and motivation for exercise. Arguments for the relevance of exercise and PSP for practitioners in promoting general mental well-being and preventing modern-day diseases are outlined.

The aim for this study was to describe Social Physique Anxiety and Self-Efficacy in the school year of 7 and 9. To that the aim for this study was to describe if there was differences between girls and boys, but also between the school years, when it comes to the estimation of Social Physique Anxiety and Self-Efficacy. The method for this report was of statistic design, with a deductive methodology who was analysed and presented in. The empirical material was collected thru questionnaires where the level of information was of quantitative characteristics. The results from this study showed that girls estimate higher Social Physique Anxiety then the boys, in school year 7 and 9. The results also showed that boys estimated a higher Self-Efficacy then the girls, in school year 7 and 9. The conclusion of the study was that they who estimated high Social Physique Anxiety also estimated a lower Self-Efficacy, independently of age. We suggest continued research of decisive factors that effects Social Physique Anxiety and Self-Efficacy, too increase the understanding of those factors that affects an individual’s health.

In modern society, individuals constantly pass judgments on their own body and physical competence as well as that of other people. All too often, the verdict is less favourable. For the person, these physical self-perceptions (PSP) may negatively affect global self-esteem, identity, and general mental well being. The overall aim of this thesis is to examine primarily the role that exercise, but also the roles that gender and culture, play in the formation of PSP. In Study I, using confirmatory factor analyses, strong support for the validity of a first-order, and a second-order hierarchical and multidimensional model of the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP: Fox &amp; Corbin, 1989) was found across three national samples (Great Britain, Sweden and Turkey) of university students. Cross-cultural differences were detected, with the British sample demonstrating higher latent means on all PSPP subdomains except for the physical condition subdomain (Condition), than the Swedish and Turkish samples. In Study II, a higher self-reported exercise frequency was associated with more positive PSP (in particular for Condition) and more importance attributed to PSP in Swedish university students. Males demonstrated higher overall PSPP-scores than females. In Study III, a true-experimental design with randomisation into an intervention and a control group was adopted. Strong support for the effects of an empowerment-based exercise intervention programme on PSP and social physique anxiety (SPA) over six months for adolescent girls was found. The relations of exercise, gender and culture with PSP, SPA and self-esteem are discussed from the standpoints of a variety of theoretical models (the EXSEM-model), and frameworks (self-presentation and objectification theory). The two theories of self-enhancement and skill-development are examined with regard to the direction of the exercise-physical self relationship and motivation for exercise. Arguments for the relevance of exercise and PSP for practitioners in promoting general mental well-being and preventing modern-day diseases are outlined.