Resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton, Gossypium hirsutum, is associated with fitness costs in pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella. Previous work has demonstrated that costs of resistance are induced by environmental factors including insecticidal cotton phytochemicals such as gossypol. This study (1) tested the hypothesis that the presence of toxic phytochemicals would increase the dominance and magnitude of fitness costs associated with genes conferring resistance to the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin, (2) coupled a selection experiment and simulation modeling to evaluate the fitness cost of resistance to Bt in pink bollworm and (3) used laboratory strains containing susceptible and resistant genotypes to test the hypothesis that gossypol accumulates more readily in pink bollworm with Bt resistance alleles, and that this gossypol accumulation reduces fitness. To test hypothesis (1), larval survival and weight were measured in two independent strains of pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella, reared on diet containing the cotton phytochemicals gossypol and cyclopropenoid fatty acid, alone, or in combination. Cotton phytochemicals increased the dominance and magnitude of fitness costs associated with cadherin-based resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin. Gossypol and cyclopropenoid fatty acid combined had a more detrimental effect on fitness of pink bollworm than either compound alone. To test hypothesis (2), two pink bollworm strains fed synthetic diet were monitored over 30 generations to test the hypothesis that costs associated with Bt resistance would result in a decline in the frequency of resistance. A decrease in resistance allele frequency did occur in both strains and costs affecting each resistant genotypes were estimated. To test hypothesis (3), two strains of pink bollworm were fed on diet containing gossypol and on diet without gossypol, and gossypol accumulation in tissues of genotypes was measured. In both strains, significantly more gossypol accumulated in genotypes containing at least one resistance allele and gossypol accumulation was additive to dominant. In both strains, an increase in the dominance or magnitude of costs affecting larval weight was observed on gossypol diet, and the change in the magnitude of costs was positively associated with gossypol absorption. In one strain, the presence of gossypol increased survival costs but only in the genotype with the highest gossypol absorption. The mutation conferring resistance to the Bt toxin Cry1Ac is found in the cadherin-encoding region in three lepidopeteran pests (Helicoverpa armigera, Heliothis virescens and Pectinophora gossypiella) including the pink bollworm. Cadherin proteins had been hypothesized to play a role in maintaining the integrity of the insect midgut epithelial tissue. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that cadherin proteins do contribute to gut integrity, toxic plant phytochemicals accumulate more readily in pink bollworm with resistance alleles, and that such accumulation increases the dominance and magnitude of fitness costs.

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In Ägypten überwintern in den Baumwollresten Insekten wie der rosafarbene Kapselwurm, der verschiedene Nutzpflanzen befällt. Insbesondere der Befall von Baumwolle verursacht große Verluste in Menge und Qualität der Baumwollernte, so dass die Landwirte vom Ministerium für Landwirtschaft verpflichtet worden sind, diese Reste auf dem Feld nach der Ernte sofort zu verbrennen, um diese Insekten zu töten. Unter der starken Rauchentwicklung dieser konzentrierten Verbrennungsaktion hatten vor allem Kairo und die umliegenden Regionen zu leiden, was wiederum zur Folge hatte, dass das ägyptische Umweltministerium das Verbrennen gänzlich verbot. Diese widersprüchlichen Verfügungen verunsichern die Landwirten, sie lagern diese Reste wieder oder verbrennen sie illegal. Die Technologie der Brikettierung erscheint als eine vorteilhafte Lösung für die Handhabung der Baumwollreste in Ägypten. Der Druck und die Temperatur während des Pressvorgangs vernichten den Baumwollschädling. Durch diesen Prozess kann ein billiger, lagerfähiger und umweltfreundlicher Biobrennstoff produziert werden als einen häuslichen Brennstoff für die ägyptischen ländlichen Bereiche. / In Egypt, cotton residues serve as an over wintering site for insects such as pink bollworm which develop in these residues and attack nearby or the following crops. This causes valuable losses in the quantity and the quality of the cotton crop so much, so that the farmers have been obliged by the Ministry of Agriculture to burn these residues on the field immediately after the harvest operation in order to kill these insects and to prevent growth of other disease carriers. As a result, a huge amount of harmful gases and clouds of smoke covers the sky above Cairo and the surrounding regions and has thus led to both environmental pollution and adverse effects for human health. As a result of this, the Ministry of the Environment established a law preventing the farmers burning these residues on the fields. Due to this confusion in laws, the farmers began to store these residues once again or burn them illegally on the fields. The briquetting technology appears as an advantageous solution for the handling of the cotton stalk residues in Egypt. Through this process a cheap, storable, pest controlled and environmentally friendly biofuel can be produced as a complementary domestic fuel for the Egyptian rural areas.