The two Voyager spacecraft discovered small-scale, radially-extended features in the central region of Saturn's B Ring. These "spokes" are "clouds" of submicron-size ice grains which are electrostatically levitated above the ring plane and which appear to travel about Saturn in Keplerian orbits (Smith et al., 1981, Science 212, 163-191). This research project is a study of the dynamical and physical properties of spokes as deduced from Voyager Saturn ring images. An analysis of the orbital motion of two dynamically-anomalous spokes, in particular, has set limits on the charge-to-mass ratios of spoke particles at various times during their dynamical evolution. These two spokes have charge-to-mass ratios of at least -60 ± 3 C kg⁻¹ while corotating with Saturn, and charge-to-mass ratios of no more than -22 ± 2 C kg⁻¹ while orbiting Saturn at Keplerian velocities. Additionally, charge decay on the grains of these spokes, caused by solar UV photoemission, has allowed a lower limit of 0.10 ± 0.03 μm to be placed on the range of radii for spoke particles. In a study of spoke photometry, a single-scattering analysis of the 0.470-μm phase function for spokes has set a mean radius for the dominant scatterers (at this wavelength) of 0.22 ± 0.02 μm. Also, a multispectral analysis of spokes has determined the spectral index of the size distribution for spoke particles to be 2.1 ± 0.2. These dynamical and physical properties of spokes have been combined with theoretical explanations of spoke activity to develop a phenomenological model of spoke formation and evolution. The transport of angular momentum within the rings due to the radial motion of spoke grains is shown to be the most significant effect of spoke activity on the dynamical evolution of the B Ring, as was predicted by Goertz et al. (1986, Nature 320, 141-143). The radial mass transport velocity due to highly-charged spokes is -1 x 10⁻⁹ m s⁻¹. The subsequent spreading time for the B Ring is 600 million years, which is significantly less than the 4.6 billion-year age of the solar system.

Stars are likely to form with non-zero initial angular momentum, and will consequently possess a substantial gaseous protostellar disc in the early phases of their evolution. At this early stage, the disc mass is expected to be comparable to the mass of the protostar. The disc’s self-gravity therefore plays an important role in the subsequent evolution of the system, regulating the accretion of matter onto the protostar, as well as being potentially capable of forming low mass stars and massive planets by disc fragmentation. The protostellar disc may later evolve into a protoplanetary disc, providing the feedstock for planet formation. Therefore, if the current stellar populations and exoplanetary systems are to be understood, an understanding of the evolution of protostellar discs is crucial, especially their earliest self-gravitating phases. I have used various methods of numerical simulation to probe the physics of self-gravitating protostellar discs and their constituents. When constructing a model for self-gravitating protostellar discs, including detailed thermodynamics and radiative transfer is essential. I have developed two distinct numerical techniques for incorporating radiative transfer into Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) simulations. The first allows the modelling of frequency-averaged radiative transfer during the SPH simulation, in effect approximating radiative SPH (RSPH) with only a marginal increase in runtime (around 6%). The second takes the output from SPH simulations, and creates synthetic, wavelength-dependent telescope images and spectra of SPH systems. This allows the direct construction of observables from SPH simulations, providing, for the first time, a direct connection between the output of SPH simulations and observations. I have used these numerical methods to analyse, in detail, the local angular momentum transport induced by self-gravity in protostellar discs, testing the robustness of the “pseudo-viscous” analytical approximation for local disc stresses. I confirm that semi-analytical disc modellers are justified in using the pseudo-viscous approximation in some cases, but I also outline the limits in which non-local transport effects causes the approximation to fail. Also, I have investigated the evolution of protostellar discs when perturbed by a secondary companion, in particular identifying whether such events will in general trigger a) a disc fragmentation event, or b) a stellar outburst event. For case a), I found no significant evidence that perturbation by a companion improves the possibility of disc fragmentation in compact discs - in case b), I found that stellar outburst events do indeed occur, but they are unlikely to be seen by observers due to their rare occurrence, as well as due to self-obscuration effects.

The presence of a giant planet in a low-viscosity disc can create a gap edge in the disc's radial density profile sharp enough to excite the Rossby wave instability. This instability may evolve into dust-trapping vortices that might explain the `banana-shaped' features in recently observed asymmetric transition discs with inner cavities. Previous hydrodynamical simulations of planet-induced vortices have neglected the time-scale of hundreds to thousands of orbits to grow a massive planet to Jupiter size. In this work, we study the effect of a giant planet's runaway growth time-scale on the lifetime and characteristics of the resulting vortex. For two different planet masses (1 and 5 Jupiter masses) and two different disc viscosities (alpha= 3 x 10-4 and 3 x 10-5), we compare the vortices induced by planets with several different growth time-scales between 10 and 4000 planet orbits. In general, we find that slowly-growing planets create significantly weaker vortices with lifetimes and surface densities reduced by more than 50 per cent. For the higher disc viscosity, the longest growth time-scales in our study inhibit vortex formation altogether. Additionally, slowly-growing planets produce vortices that are up to twice as elongated, with azimuthal extents well above 180. in some cases. These unique, elongated vortices likely create a distinct signature in the dust observations that differentiates them from the more concentrated vortices that correspond to planets with faster growth time-scales. Lastly, we find that the low viscosities necessary for vortex formation likely prevent planets from growing quickly enough to trigger the instability in self-consistent models.

We present new Atacama Large Millimeter/sub-millimeter Array (ALMA) 1.3 mm continuum observations of the SR 24S transition disk with an angular resolution less than or similar to 0'.18 (12 au radius). We perform a multi-wavelength investigation by combining new data with previous ALMA data at 0.45 mm. The visibilities and images of the continuum emission at the two wavelengths are well characterized by a ring-like emission. Visibility modeling finds that the ring-like emission is narrower at longer wavelengths, in good agreement with models of dust-trapping in pressure bumps, although there are complex residuals that suggest potentially asymmetric structures. The 0.45 mm emission has a shallower profile inside the central cavity than the 1.3 mm emission. In addition, we find that the (CO)-C-13 and (CO)-O-18 (J = 2-1) emission peaks at the center of the continuum cavity. We do not detect either continuum or gas emission from the northern companion to this system (SR 24N), which is itself a binary system. The upper limit for the dust disk mass of SR 24N is less than or similar to 0.12 M-circle plus, which gives a disk mass ratio in dust between the two components of M-dust,M-SR 24S/M-dust,M-SR 24N greater than or similar to 840. The current ALMA observations may imply that either planets have already formed in the SR 24N disk or that dust growth to millimeter sizes is inhibited there and that only warm gas, as seen by rovibrational CO emission inside the truncation radii of the binary, is present.

The various origins proposed for intercrater plains on Mercury and the Moon lead to divergent thermal, tectonic, and bombardment histories. Relative ages of geologic units and structures place tight constraints on their origin and on the planet's geologic history. Crater statistics, lunar geologic map analysis, and geologic mapping of a quarter of Mercury's surface based on plains units dated relative to crater degradation classes were used to determine relative ages. Such studies provided the basis for deducing the origin of intercrater plains and their role in terrestrial planet evolution. Mercury's extensive intercrater plains span a range of ages contemporaneous with the period of heavy bombardment. Most intercrater plains predate scarp formation and the formation of the hilly and lineated terrain. The age of the latter is identical to that of its probable progenitor, the Caloris basin impact. Post-Caloris plains--smoother in texture, less extensive, and confined to crater depressions--formed as cratering waned and scarp formation progressed. This research indicates that mercurian intercrater plains are volcanic deposits interbedded with ballistically emplaced ejecta and reworked by basin secondaries and smaller impacts. A greater proportion of ejecta may comprise lunar intercrater plains. Neither the lunar nor mercurian intercrater surface is primordial because each preserves pre-plains crateriforms. Ancient volcanism on Mercury is evidenced by widespread plains distribution, structurally controlled deposition, embayment of craters and basins, associated (but tentative) volcanic landforms, losses of small craters, and uncorrelated plains and crater coverage. The limited range of mercurian ejecta reduces the resurfacing potential relative to that of lunar craters. Crater densities are affected by intercrater plains emplacement, additions of secondaries, ancient basin impacts, and target physical properties. "One-plate" thermo-tectonic models best explain the geologic characteristics recognized in this study. Thermal expansion during core formation causes global extension and widespread volcanic extrusions; subsequent cooling and radial contraction form compressional scarps. Younger plains-forming materials issue from magma reservoirs in subsurface tensional zones tapped by impact fractures. The age and stress environment of these volcanic plains suggest a source greater than 40 km depth and a composition different from that of the intercrater plains.

Aims. Uncovering the ingredients and the architecture of planetary systems is a very active field of research that has fuelled many new theories on giant planet formation, migration, composition, and interaction with the circumstellar environment. We aim at discovering and studying new such systems, to further expand our knowledge of how low-mass companions form and evolve. Methods. We obtained high-contrast H-band images of the circumstellar environment of the F5V star HD 206893, known to host a debris disc never detected in scattered light. These observations are part of the SPHERE High Angular Resolution Debris Disc Survey (SHARDDS) using the InfraRed Dual-band Imager and Spectrograph (IRDIS) installed on VLT/SPHERE. Results. We report the detection of a source with a contrast of 3 : 6 x 10(-5) in the H-band, orbiting at a projected separation of 270 milliarcsec or 10 au, corresponding to a mass in the range 24 to 73 M-Jup for an age of the system in the range 0.2 to 2 Gyr. The detection was confirmed ten months later with VLT /NaCo, ruling out a background object with no proper motion. A faint extended emission compatible with the disc scattered light signal is also observed. Conclusions. The detection of a low-mass companion inside a massive debris disc makes this system an analog of other young planetary systems such as beta Pictoris, HR 8799 or HD 95086 and requires now further characterisation of both components to understand their interactions.

Hydrogen gas evaporating from the atmosphere of the hot-Neptune GJ436b absorbs over 50% of the stellar Lya emission during transit. Given the planet's atmospheric composition and energy-limited escape rate, this hydrogen outflow is expected to entrain heavier atoms such as C and O. We searched for C and Si in the escaping atmosphere of GJ436b using far-ultraviolet Hubble Space Telescope COS G130M observations made during the planet's extended H I transit. These observations show no transit absorption in the C II 1334,1335 angstrom and Si III 1206 angstrom lines integrated over [-100, 100] km s(-1), imposing 95% (2 sigma) upper limits of 14% (C II) and 60% (Si III) depth on the transit of an opaque disk and 22% (C II) and 49% (Si III) depth on an extended highly asymmetric transit similar to that of H I Ly alpha. C+ is likely present in the outflow according to a simulation we carried out using a spherically symmetric photochemical-hydrodynamical model. This simulation predicts an similar to 2% transit over the integrated bandpass, consistent with the data. At line center, we predict the C II transit depth to be as high as 19%. Our model predicts a neutral hydrogen escape rate of 1.6 x 10(9) g s(-1) (3.1 x 10(9) g s(-1) for all species) for an upper atmosphere composed of hydrogen and helium.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo abordar a modelagem da formação e migração de um núcleo sólido planetário . Para isso, foi utilizado um modelo de acreção de planetesimais, baseado no trabalho de Inaba et al. (2000), no qual a taxa de acreção média depende da inclinação e excentricidade dos planetesimais, obtidas através da situação de equilbrio entre a interação com o protoplaneta e o arrasto do gás (Fortier et al., 2013). Para complementar esse cenário, foi includa a migração de tipo I, que ocorre devido à interação do planeta com o disco de gás. O modelo analtico que descreve essa migração teve como base o trabalho de Tanaka et al. (2002). O perfil de densidade de gás e sólidos foi obtido com base em três modelos diferentes para o disco. O primeiro é o modelo clássico da Nebulosa Solar, no qual o perfil de densidade decai com r 3/2 ; o segundo é um modelo hbrido, que utiliza medidas observacionais da densidade superficial do gás (Andrews e Williams, 2005) e uma estimativa analtica para a densidade volumêtrica do gás; por fim, o terceiro modelo é um disco de acreção que utiliza a parametrização de Shakura e Sunyaev (1973) com constante. Com o uso desses três perfis diferentes para o disco, foi possvel explorar a variação dos parâmetros livres do modelo e a possibilidade de formação de núcleos sólidos, da ordem de 10M Terra , num tempo menor que o tempo de vida do disco, estimado como menor que 10 × 10^6 anos. Em geral, a migração de tipo I é muito rápida, de modo que o protoplaneta cai na estrela antes mesmo de adquirir massa suficiente para iniciar a acreção de gás. No entanto, a análise revelou, para o disco hbrido, a possibilidade de se obter massas próximas de 10MTerra , num tempo da ordem de 2 × 10^6 anos, em distâncias de até 3.5 UA. Conclui-se, então, que modelos de acreção mais completos, assim como a obtenção deperfis de densidade de gás e sólidos dos discos protoplanetários mais coerentes, podem explicar a formação de núcleos sólidos num tempo hábil para a formação de planetas gigantes, sem a necessidade de fatores numéricos que reduzam a taxa de migração de tipo I. / The aim of this paper is to model the planetary formation and migration of a solid core. Therefore, it was used a model of planetesimal accretion, based on the paper of Inaba et al. (2000), in which the average accretion tax depends on the inclination and eccentricity of that planetesimals. These parameters were obtained through the balance situation between the interaction with the protoplanet and gas draft (Fortier et al., 2013). In order to complete this scenario, the migration type I, which occurs due to an interaction of the planet with the gas disc, was included. The analytical model that describes this migration has its basis on (Tanaka et al., 2002). The density of solids and gas profile was based on three different models for the disc. The first one is a classical of Nebulosa Solar, in which the density profile varies r^3/2 , the second is a hybrid model that uses observational measures of the gas superficial density (Andrews et al., 2010) and an analytical formula for the gas volumetric density; at last, the third model is an accretion disc which uses the parameterization of (Shakura e Sunyaev, 1973) with constant. Using these three different disc profiles, it was possible to explore the variation of the model free parameters and the possibility of the solid cores formation with 10M Earth within time smaller than 10 × 10^6 years, which is the estimated limit lifetime of the disc. In general, migration type I is very fast, so that the protoplanet falls on the star before acquiring enough mass to begin the gas accretion. However, the analysis has revealed, for the hybrid disc, the possibility to obtain masses up to 10MEarth within time 2 × 10^6 , for distance up to 3.5 AU. In conclusion, more complete models of accretion as well as the more coherent density gas and solid profiles of the protoplanet obtained may explain the formation of solid coreswithin a useful time for the giant planets formation, not using numerical factors that reduce the migration type I tax.

Le sujet de cette thèse est la phase d'accrétion emballée du gaz lors de la formation des planètes géantes, au moyen de simulations hydrodynamiques. Une planète de la masse de Jupiter est simulée au sein d'un disque circumstellaire autour d'une étoile de masse solaire. Grâce aux grilles emboitées du code JUPITER, le voisinage de la planète est résolu suffisamment pour étudier le disque circumplanétaire. Des simulations 3D localement isothermes révèlent que l'accrétion est un processus fondamentalement tridimensionnel, avec 90% du gaz accrété verticalement à travers le sillon ouvert par la planète, via une circulation méridienne entre les disques circumstellaire et circumplanétaire. Le taux d'accrétion est mesuré à partir de simulations sans viscosité, en accord avec les conditions qui règnent dans l'environnement planétaire. On trouve que Jupiter doublerait sa masse en un demi million d'années durant cette phase emballée, ce qui est similaire au temps de dispersion du disque, et pourrait donc expliquer la rareté des exoplanètes très massives (plus de 3 masses de Jupiter). En ajoutant les effets thermiques au code Jupiter, nous avons réalisé des simulations radiatives, avec des températures plus réalistes. Celles-ci montrent que la température de la planète influence fortement les propriétés de la matière circum-planétaire : même une planète assez massive pour ouvrir un sillon ne peut former qu'une enveloppe planétaire supportée par la pression si sa température est élevée (~13000 K), comme une planète de faible masse. Au contraire, dans les simulations où la température au voisinage de la planète est bornée à 1000-2000 K, un disque circum-planétaire se forme. / This thesis is focusing on the runaway gas accretion phase of giant planet formation with hydrodynamic simulations. A Jupiter-mass planet is simulated embedded in a circumstellar disk around a Solar-mass star. Thanks to the JUPITER-code nested meshing technique, the planet vicinity is resolved with high resolution allowing to study the circumplanetary disk formed around the giant planet. Isothermal, 3-dimensional simulations revealed that the accretion is truly 3D process, with 90% of the gas accreted from the vertical direction through the planetary gap. This vertical influx is part of a meridional circulation between the circumstellar and circumplanetary disks. The accretion rate to planet was determined from inviscid simulation, in order to account for the presumably low viscosity environment in the forming planet’s vicinity. In this inviscid limit, the mass doubling time in the runaway phase can be as long as half a million years, competing with the gas dispersal timescale, hence providing a possible solution for the missing population of massive (>3 Jupiter-mass) giant planets. Incorporating the thermal effects into the JUPITER-code, radiative simulations with more realistic temperature information were carried out as well. These simulations revealed that the planetary temperature greatly determines the properties of the circumplanetary material. Even a gap-opening giant planet could only form a circumplanetary, pressure-supported envelope, if the planet temperature is high (~13,000 Kelvin), similarly to low-mass planets. In contrary, in the simulations were the central temperatures were capped at 1000-2000 Kelvins, circumplanetary disks were formed.

As the number of known exoplanetary systems has grown, it has become increasing apparent that our current understanding of planet formation is insufficient to explain the broad but distinct distributions of planets and planetary systems we observe. In particular, constructing a coherent model of planetary formation and migration within a circumstellar disc which is capable of producing both hot Jupiters or Solar System-like planetary system is high challenging. Resolved observations of where planets form and how they influence their parent discs provides essential information for tackling this important question. A promising technique for detecting close-in companions is Sparse Aperture Masking (SAM). The technique uses a mask to transform a single aperture telescope into a compact interferometric array capable of reliably detecting point sources at the diffraction limit or closer to a bright star with superior contrasts than extreme AO systems at the cost of smaller fields of view. Applying image reconstruction techniques to the interferometric information allows an observer to recover detailed structure in the circumstellar material. In this thesis I present work on the interpretation of SAM interferometry data on protoplanetary discs through the simulation of a number of scenarios expected to be commonly seen, and the application of this technique to a number of objects. Analysing data taken as part of a SAM survey of transitional and pre-transitional discs using the Keck-II/NIRC2 instrument, I detected three companion candidates within the discs of DM\,Tau, LkH\alpha\,330, and TW\,Hya, and resolved a gap in the disc around FP\,Tau as indicated by flux from the disc rim. The location of all three of the companions detected as part of the survey are positioned in interesting regions of their parent discs. The candidate, LkH\alpha\,330\,b is a potentially cavity opening companion due to its close radial proximity to the inner rim of the outer disc. DM\,Tau\,b is located immediately outside of a ring of dusty material largely responsible for the NIR comment of the disc SED, similar to TW\,Hya\,b located in a shallow gap in the dust disc outside another ring of over-dense dusty material which bounds a deep but narrow gap. Both of these companion candidates maybe migrating cores which are feeding from the enriched ring of material. I conducted a more extensive study of the pre-transitional disc, V1247\,Ori, covering three epochs and the H-, K- and L-wavebands. Complementary observations with VLT/SPHERE in H\alpha and continuum plus SMA observations in CO (2-1) and continuum were performed. The orientation and geometry of the outer disc was recovered with the SMA data and determine the direction of rotation. We image the inner rim of the outer disc in L-band SAM data, recovering the rim in all three epochs. Combining all three data sets together we form a detailed image of the rim. In H- and K-band SAM data we observe the motion of a close-in companion candidate. This motion was found to be too large to be adequately explained through a near-circular Keplerian orbit within the plane of the disc around the central star. Hence an alternate hypothesis had to be developed. I postulated that the fitted position of the companion maybe influenced by the emission from the disc rim seen in the L-band SAM data. I constructed a suite of model SAM data sets of a companion and a disc rim and found that under the right conditions the fitted separation of a companion will be larger than the true separation. Under these conditions we find the motion of the companion candidate to be consistent with a near-circular Keplerian orbit within the plane of the disc at a semi-major axis of \sim6\,au. The H\alpha data lack the necessary resolution to confirm the companion as an accreting body, but through the high contrast sensitivities enabled by the state of the art SPHERE instrument I was able to rule out any other accreting body within the gap, unless deeply embedded by the sparse population of MIR emitting dust grains previously inferred to reside within the gap. Through the combination of SAM and SMA data we constrain the 3-D orientation of the disc, and through multi-wavelength SAM observation identify a close-in companion potentially responsible for the gap clearing and asymmetric arm structures seen in previous observations of this target. During my PhD I have contributed to the field of planet formation through the identification of four new candidate protoplanets observed in the discs of pre-main sequence stars. To do so I have quantified the confidence levels of companion fits to SAM data sets and formed synthetic data from models of asymmetric structures seen in these discs. I have described for the first time the effects of extended sources of emission on the fitted results of companion searches within interferometric data sets. I have combined SAM data sets from two separate telescopes with different apertures and masks to produce reconstructed image of an illuminated disc rim with superior uv-coverage. I have used the expertise I have developed in this field to contribute to a number of other studies, including the study of the young star TYC\,8241\,2652\,1, resulting in the rejection of a sub-stellar companion as the cause of the rapid dispersal of the star`s disc. The companion candidates I have identified here should be followed up to confirm their presence and nature as accreting protoplanets. Objects such as these will provide the opportunity for more detailed study of the process of planet formation in the near future with the next generation of instruments in the JWST and E-ELT.