Active disease resistance in plants is induced during the pathogen infection process that triggers multiple defense-related genes to establish broad-spectrum resistance. Several biotic and abiotic agents can mimic natural induced resistance (IR), categorized as systemic acquired (SAR) or induced systemic resistance (ISR). IR, triggered by acibenzolar-S-methyl (ASM) or plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), was evaluated on two-to-three types of tobacco in greenhouse and field studies. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) local lesion assays monitored induction and maintenance of ASM-induced SAR over a 21 day period via proportional reduction in the number of TMV local lesions between an untreated control and ASM-treated plants. Intraspecific variation in SAR was found among tobacco types; burley and flue-cured tobaccos responded by day 3, while oriental tobacco responded between day 3 and 6. The SAR signal was greatest between 6 and 15 days following ASM application, but IR was slightly evident even at 21 days after ASM application in all three tobacco types. Bottom and middle leaves responded similarly on all sample dates, but top leaves showed the weakest SAR response. Tobacco cyst nematode (TCN; Globodera tabacum solanacearum) is one of the most destructive pathogens of tobacco in Virginia. Among four PGPR combinations tested, a mixture of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens IN937a (GB99) and B. subtilis A13 (GB122) most consistently suppressed TCN reproduction in flue-cured and oriental tobacco. Application of ASM similarly reduced final numbers of TCN cysts, but also resulted in chlorosis, stunting, and lower plant fresh weight. GB99+GB122 also suppressed TCN development and reproduction in susceptible and resistant flue-cured cultivars, but reductions by ASM were less consistent. In a split-root trial, soil amendment with GB99+GB122 in one half of an oriental tobacco root system lowered final numbers of TCN more than did ASM. ASM exhibited undesirable effects in phytotoxicity trials in flue-cured and oriental tobacco, but GB99+GB122 was not phytotoxic. When oriental tobacco seedlings were grown in a GB99+GB122-treated soil-less media, a single application of 200 mg ASM/L one week after transplanting significantly suppressed TCN reproduction in the field without phytotoxicity. Further field research is needed to confirm this effect in flue-cured tobacco. / Ph. D.

No description available.

No description available.

Ce projet explore l’hypothèse selon laquelle les gènes et les métabolites végétaux communément régulés joueraient un rôle majeur dans l’interaction riz-PGPR et constituerait une signature moléculaire de la perception des PGPR par le riz. Dans cet objectif, une analyse intégrant le suivi de l’expression d’une sélection de gènes ainsi que le profilage des métabolites secondaires a été conduite sur les racines d’un unique cultivar de riz (Nipponbare) en réponse à l’inoculation de dix souches de PGPR appartenant à divers genres bactériens (Azospirillum, Herbaspirillum, Paraburkholderia). Nos résultats ont permis l’identification de quatre gènes de riz pouvant être considérés comme marqueurs de l’association riz-PGPR, avec notamment deux gènes impliqués dans la biosynthèse de phytoalexines et un gène codant pour une protéine PR (pathogenesis-related). De plus, une signature métabolique commune, constituée de neuf composés, a été mise en évidence, dont la réduction de l’accumulation de trois alkylrésorcinols et l’augmentation de l’accumulation de deux amides d’acides hydroxycinnamiques (HCAA) : la N-p-coumaroylputrescine et la N-féruloylputrescine. Cette signature métabolique a été corrélée avec l’augmentation de l’expression de deux gènes impliqués dans la biosynthèse de la N-féruloylputrescine. Il est intéressant d’observer que la confrontation du riz à un pathogène bactérien entraine une réduction de l’accumulation de ces HCAA dans les racines. Cette accumulation d’HCAA, qui sont des composés antimicrobiens potentiels, pourrait être considérée comme une réaction primaire de la perception de bactéries par le riz / Besides, a common metabolomic signature of nine compounds was highlighted, with the reduced accumulation of three alkylresorcinols and increased accumulation of two hydroxycinnamic acid amides (HCAA), identified as N-p-coumaroylputrescine and N-feruloylputrescine. This coincided with the increased transcription of two genes involved in the N-feruloylputrescine biosynthetic pathway. Interestingly, exposure to a rice bacterial pathogen triggered a reduced accumulation of these HCAA in roots. Accumulation of HCAA, that are potential antimicrobial compounds, might be considered as a primary reaction of rice to bacterial perception

Le lin, principale plante à fibres cultivée en France possède un intérêt industriel pour la qualité de ses fibres. Les cultures de lin sont régulièrement attaquées par un champignon tellurique, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lini (Fol), responsable des plus grandes pertes dans les cultures de lin. Les PGPR (Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria) sont des bactéries réputées pour leurs capacités à améliorer la croissance et le développement des plantes, mais également pour leur pouvoir compétiteur au sein de la rhizosphère et leur aptitude à induire une réponse immunitaire chez les plantes. Parallèlement, l’utilisation de SDP (Stimulateur des Défenses des Plantes), molécules capables d’éliciter les mécanismes de défenses des plantes est une autre alternative pour limiter l’utilisation des pesticides. Dans le cadre de ce projet mené sur deux variétés de lin, Aramis et Mélina, il a pu être montré que Fol induisait un remodelage de la paroi au niveau des racines et des tiges, impliquant les hémicelluloses et les pectines, seulement deux jours après inoculation avec le champignon. L’utilisation de la souche ATCC 6633 de Bacillus subtilis comme agent de biocontrôle a permis de réduire de façon significative l’apparition des symptômes de la fusariose. Il a également été montré qu’en plus d’avoir un effet fongicide sur Fol, cette bactérie est capable d’induire l’expression de deux gènes de défense (Pathogenesis-Related) codant pour une β-(1,3)-glucanase (PR-2) et codant pour une chitinase-like (CTL-10), de gènes impliqués dans la voie des phénylpropanoïdes (PHENYLALANINE AMONIA LYASES, PAL-3 et PAL-4) et dans le remodelage pariétal (PECTIN METHYLESTERASE-3, PME-3) au niveau racinaire. Des analyses biochimiques ont également permis de montrer que B. subtilis provoque des modifications se traduisant par un renforcement pariétal au niveau des tiges chez les deux variétés. Enfin, l’association de la PGPR avec une molécule élicitrice (pregnénolone sulfate) a eu un effet synergique sur l’expression de gènes de défense. / In France, flax (Linum usitatissumum) is a principal fibers crop. Fusarium oxysporum f sp lini (Fol), a soil-borne fungus, is responsible for the major losses in crop yield. PGPR (Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria) are known for their abilities to promote plant growth and health. These bacteria are also good competitors in the rhizosphere and can induce a plant defense response. The use of compounds able to elicit plant defense mechanisms is also an alternative to limit the use of pesticides. In this project, it has been shown that F. oxysporum f. sp. lini induces only two days after inoculation cell wall remodeling in the root and the stem involving hemicelluloses and pectins on two flax varieties, Aramis and Mélina, . The use of the Bacillus subtilis strain ATCC 6633 as biocontrol agent significantly reduced fusarium wilt appearance. In addition to its antifungal effect against Fol, this bacteria is able to induce the expression of two Pathogenesis-Related genes coding for a β-(1,3)-glucanase (PR-2) and a chitinase-like (CTL-10), genes involved in the phenylpropanoid pathway (PHENYLALANINE AMONIA LYASES, PAL-3 and PAL-4) and also in cell wall remodeling (PECTIN METHYLESTERASE-3, PME-3) in the root. Biochemical analyses show that B. subtilis causes modifications resulting in cell wall reinforcement in the stem in both varieties. Finally, the association of B. subtilis with an elicitor (pregnenolone sulfate) had a synergistic effect on the expression of defense-related genes.

No description available.

Soils have been contaminated with cadmium (Cd) by the use of fertilizers, calcareous, pesticides and industrial and/or domestic effluents. It can be leached to groundwater, as well as be taken up by plants potentially leading to reduce growth and yield. It causes different damages to the cell, generating oxidative stress which is responsible for its toxicity, affecting all living organism. A balance in the redox state of the cell to maintain cellular integrity and metabolism is essential for organism tolerance. Thus, the antioxidant response of bacteria exposed to Cd was studied to understand the tolerance mechanism, and be able to develop a methodology to bioremediate contaminated soils. MDA and hydrogen peroxide contents and different enzymes activity of antioxidant system (SOD, CAT, GR and GST) of two strains from Burkholderia genus, one from a soil contaminated with Cd in high concentrations (strain SCMS54) and the other from soil without Cd (strain SNMS32) in two exposure time (5 and 12 h), were analyzed. Stress measurement (MDA and hydrogen peroxide content) and antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT, GR and GST) increased in almost all treatments in the presence of Cd. These results also indicate that strain SCMS54 (isolated from Cd contaminated soil) presents a higher metabolic diversity and plasticity due the expression of more isoforms of the enzymes SOD, CAT and GR. The strain also accumulates 50% more Cd. We also analyzed the response to Ni of these two strain, observing a similar response to Cd, except for GST enzyme expression, which in strain SCMS54 this enzyme was induced in the presence of Ni, indicating that this enzyme can be essential on Ni tolerance. After that, the strain isolated from Cd contaminated soil (SCMS54) was selected to proceed the studies to evaluate the benefits of tolerant microorganism-tomato plant interaction. The use of plants to remove heavy metals from contaminated soilhas less impact and a lower cost. Soil microorganisms can be able to solubilize or mobilize soil metals acting also as bioremediator. Besides the high tolerance to Cd, the strain SCMS54 can produce indole-acetic acid (IAA), solubilize inorganic phosphate and produce siderophore, revealing its potential in plantmicroorganism mutual and beneficial interaction. When interacting with tomato plants exposed to Cd, this bacterium led to decrease in plant peroxide concentration and chlorosis levels, promoted relative plant growth and reduced the root absorption of Cd resulting in an increase in plant tolerance to this highly toxic heavy metal. Indicating that inoculation of tomato plants with Burkholderia sp. SCMS54 promotes better growth when cultivated in the presence of Cd by a mechanism that appears to decrease Cd concentration in roots as a result of a bacterial-plant root beneficial interaction. / O cádmio (Cd) tem contaminado solos pelo uso de fertilizantes, calcário, agrotóxicos e resíduos industriais e/ou domésticos. Podendo ser lixiviado ao lençol freático ou absorvido pelas plantas,resultando na redução do crescimento e da produtividade. Esse metal afeta todos os organismos vivos e causa diferentes danos às células. A tolerância a esse metal se deve principalmente ao balanço do estado redox da célula para manter a integridade celular e metabolismo.Assim, foram isoladas bactérias de solo contaminado e não contaminado com Cd, selecionando isolados tolerantes a altas concentrações de diferentes metais (Cd, Ni e Zn), em seguida, foi observado a resposta do sistema antioxidante da bactéria na presença do Cd, a fim de auxiliar no desenvolvimento de metodologias para biorremediar solos contaminados. Foi quantificado MDA e peróxido de hidrogênio e a atividade de diferentes enzimas do sistema antioxidante (SOD, CAT, GR e GST) de duas estirpes do gênero Burkholderia tolerantes a todos os metais testados, uma isolada do solo contaminado com altas concentrações de Cd (estirpe SCMS54) e a outra do solo sem Cd (estirpe SNMS32) em dois tempos de exposição (5 e 12 h). Na estirpe SCMS54, as medidas de estresse (peroxidação lipídica e peróxido de hidrogênio) e a atividade das enzimas antioxidantes (SOD, CAT, GR e GST) da maioria dos tratamento com cádmio aumentaram, esta estirpe também expressa mais isoformas de SOD, CAT e GR, além de acumular 50% mais Cd. Esses resultados mostram que a estirpe SCMS54 (isolada do solo contaminado com Cd) apresenta uma maior diversidade metabólica e plasticidade. Foram analisadas também a resposta dessas duas estirpes ao Ni, observando uma resposta semelhante ao Cd, exceto na expressão da enzima GST, que no estirpe SCMS54 foi induzida na presença do Ni, indicando que essa enzima pode ser essencial na tolerância ao Ni. Portanto, a estirpe isoladado solo contaminado com Cd (SCMS54) foi selecionada para prosseguir os estudos e avaliar os benefícios da interação entre microrganismos tolerantes-plantas de tomate na fitorremediação. Essa técnica é usada remover para metais pesados do solo com um menor impacto e baixos custos. Os microrganismos do solo podem solubilizar e mobilizar metais do solo, atuando como biorremediador. Além da alta tolerância ao Cd, a estirpe SCMS54 produz ácido indol acético (AIA), solubiliza fosfato inorgânico e produz sideroforo, mostrando seu potencial na interação benéfica planta-microorganismo. Quando interagindo com as plantas de tomate expostas ao Cd, essa bactéria diminui a concentração de peróxido da planta e a clorose ocasionado pelo Cd,e reduz a absorção de Cd pela raiz resultando em um aumento da tolerância da planta ao metal pesado altamente tóxico. Assim, a inoculação de plantas de tomate com Burkholderia sp. SCMS54 promove crescimento da planta na presença de Cd, desencadeando um mecanismo que diminui a concentração de Cd nas raízes devido a essa interação benéfica bactéria-raiz da planta.

O desenvolvimento de tecnologias alternativas que visem aumentar a disponibilidade e eficiência do uso dos recursos minerais para as plantas aparecem como importante medida para se alcançar um crescimento sustentável da agricultura. Neste contexto, o suprimento de nitrogênio por meios biológicos, utilizando micro-organismos diazotróficos, dos quais os mais estudados são os rizóbios associados simbioticamente às leguminosas, é uma importante alternativa. Porém o sucesso atingido com essa simbiose em leguminosas ainda não foi alcançado em outras famílias de plantas, principalmente por limitações associadas à otimização das combinações planta-bactéria. Em gramíneas, diazotróficos endofíticos têm sido usados como inoculante, com resultados controversos. No entanto, é possível que micro-organismos diazotróficos epifíticos possam apresentar maior vantagem adaptativa devido à menor especificidade em sua relação com a planta, e serem mais eficientes em plantas não-leguminosas. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar o efeito de um inoculante produzido a partir de bactérias diazotróficas isoladas da filosfera no crescimento de milho e tomateiro. Ensaios foram realizados em condições de casa-de-vegetação, utilizando-se três diferentes isolados de bactérias diazotróficas encapsuladas em esferas de alginato sob diferentes níveis de adubação nitrogenada. A eficiência dos isolados em fixar nitrogênio foi avaliada através da atividade da nitrogenase. As populações de diazotróficos na rizosfera foram determinadas através da técnica do número mais provável (NMP) ao final do ensaio. Além disso, parâmetros como biomassa da parte aérea e das raízes foram analisados. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de variância, sendo as médias das variáveis comparadas pelo teste Duncan (p<0,05), utilizando-se o programa estatístico R. Plantas de milho, aos 60 dias após a inoculação com o isolado J8L, apresentaram matéria seca da raiz e atividade da nitrogenase 26 e 50 % superior ao controle não-inoculado, respectivamente. Plantas de tomateiro, 30 dias após a inoculação com o isolado E5L, apresentaram matéria seca da parte aérea e matéria seca da raiz 39 e 31 % superior ao controle não-inoculado, respectivamente. Parte dos efeitos observados no milho e tomateiro podem ser explicados pela atividade de fixação biológica de nitrogênio e produção de fitormônios, como auxina. A atividade da nitrogenase na rizosfera do milho, 60 dias após a inoculação foi maior no solo sem adição de N. O NMP não apresentou diferenças significativas e nos ensaios com milho e tomateiro, entre plantas inoculadas e não inoculadas, mostrando uma provável influência da comunidade diazotrófica nativa sobre a população final de diazotróficas analisada. De uma maneira geral, os isolados J8L e E5L proporcionaram ganhos significativos para as culturas do milho e tomateiro, mostrando potencial para uso como biofertilizantes. / The development of alternative technologies to increasing availability and use efficiency of mineral resources for plants is an important step for sustainable agricultural production. In this context, the supply of nitrogen by biological means, using diazotrophic microorganisms, of which the most studied are rhizobia symbiotically associated with legumes, is an important alternative. However, the efficiency of rhizobium-legume symbioses has not yet been achieved in other plant families, mainly due to limitations associated with the optimization of plant-bacterial combinations. In grasses, endophytic diazotrophs have been used as inoculant, with controversial results. However, it is possible that epiphytic diazotrophic microorganisms may have adaptive advantages over endophytes, due to the lower specificity in their associations with plants, and be more efficient in non-leguminous plants. The objective of the present work was to evaluate the effect of an inoculant produced with diazotrophic bacteria isolated from the phyllosphere on the growth of maize and tomato. Assays were carried out under greenhouse conditions using three isolates of diazotrophic bacteria encapsulated in alginate beads under different levels of nitrogen fertilization. The efficiency of the isolates in fixing nitrogen was evaluated determining nitrogenase activities. The populations of diazotrophic bacteria in the rhizosphere were determined by the most probable number (MPN) technique at the end of the experiment. In addition, parameters such as shoot and root biomass were analyzed. The data were submitted to the analysis of variance, and means were compared by the Duncan test (p<0.05), using the statistical program R. Maize plants at 60 days after inoculation with the J8L isolate presented root dry weight and nitrogenase activity in the rhizosphere 26 and 50% higher than the uninoculated control, respectively. Tomato plants, 30 days after inoculation with the E5L isolate, presented shoot and root dry weight 39 and 31% higher than the uninoculated control, respectively. Part of the effects observed in maize and tomato can be explained by the nitrogen fixation activity and auxin production. Nitrogenase activity in the maize rhizosphere, 60 days after inoculation was higher in the soil without N supply. The population of diazothrophic bacteria in the rhizosphere of inoculated and non-inoculated maize and tomato plants were not significantly different, showing a probable influence of the native diazotrophic community on the total diazotrophic population. In general, isolates J8L and E5L promoted growth of maize and tomato, showing potential for use as biofertilizers.

O desenvolvimento de tecnologias alternativas que visem aumentar a disponibilidade e eficiência do uso dos recursos minerais para as plantas aparecem como importante medida para se alcançar um crescimento sustentável da agricultura. Neste contexto, o suprimento de nitrogênio por meios biológicos, utilizando micro-organismos diazotróficos, dos quais os mais estudados são os rizóbios associados simbioticamente às leguminosas, é uma importante alternativa. Porém o sucesso atingido com essa simbiose em leguminosas ainda não foi alcançado em outras famílias de plantas, principalmente por limitações associadas à otimização das combinações planta-bactéria. Em gramíneas, diazotróficos endofíticos têm sido usados como inoculante, com resultados controversos. No entanto, é possível que micro-organismos diazotróficos epifíticos possam apresentar maior vantagem adaptativa devido à menor especificidade em sua relação com a planta, e serem mais eficientes em plantas não-leguminosas. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar o efeito de um inoculante produzido a partir de bactérias diazotróficas isoladas da filosfera no crescimento de milho e tomateiro. Ensaios foram realizados em condições de casa-de-vegetação, utilizando-se três diferentes isolados de bactérias diazotróficas encapsuladas em esferas de alginato sob diferentes níveis de adubação nitrogenada. A eficiência dos isolados em fixar nitrogênio foi avaliada através da atividade da nitrogenase. As populações de diazotróficos na rizosfera foram determinadas através da técnica do número mais provável (NMP) ao final do ensaio. Além disso, parâmetros como biomassa da parte aérea e das raízes foram analisados. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de variância, sendo as médias das variáveis comparadas pelo teste Duncan (p<0,05), utilizando-se o programa estatístico R. Plantas de milho, aos 60 dias após a inoculação com o isolado J8L, apresentaram matéria seca da raiz e atividade da nitrogenase 26 e 50 % superior ao controle não-inoculado, respectivamente. Plantas de tomateiro, 30 dias após a inoculação com o isolado E5L, apresentaram matéria seca da parte aérea e matéria seca da raiz 39 e 31 % superior ao controle não-inoculado, respectivamente. Parte dos efeitos observados no milho e tomateiro podem ser explicados pela atividade de fixação biológica de nitrogênio e produção de fitormônios, como auxina. A atividade da nitrogenase na rizosfera do milho, 60 dias após a inoculação foi maior no solo sem adição de N. O NMP não apresentou diferenças significativas e nos ensaios com milho e tomateiro, entre plantas inoculadas e não inoculadas, mostrando uma provável influência da comunidade diazotrófica nativa sobre a população final de diazotróficas analisada. De uma maneira geral, os isolados J8L e E5L proporcionaram ganhos significativos para as culturas do milho e tomateiro, mostrando potencial para uso como biofertilizantes. / The development of alternative technologies to increasing availability and use efficiency of mineral resources for plants is an important step for sustainable agricultural production. In this context, the supply of nitrogen by biological means, using diazotrophic microorganisms, of which the most studied are rhizobia symbiotically associated with legumes, is an important alternative. However, the efficiency of rhizobium-legume symbioses has not yet been achieved in other plant families, mainly due to limitations associated with the optimization of plant-bacterial combinations. In grasses, endophytic diazotrophs have been used as inoculant, with controversial results. However, it is possible that epiphytic diazotrophic microorganisms may have adaptive advantages over endophytes, due to the lower specificity in their associations with plants, and be more efficient in non-leguminous plants. The objective of the present work was to evaluate the effect of an inoculant produced with diazotrophic bacteria isolated from the phyllosphere on the growth of maize and tomato. Assays were carried out under greenhouse conditions using three isolates of diazotrophic bacteria encapsulated in alginate beads under different levels of nitrogen fertilization. The efficiency of the isolates in fixing nitrogen was evaluated determining nitrogenase activities. The populations of diazotrophic bacteria in the rhizosphere were determined by the most probable number (MPN) technique at the end of the experiment. In addition, parameters such as shoot and root biomass were analyzed. The data were submitted to the analysis of variance, and means were compared by the Duncan test (p<0.05), using the statistical program R. Maize plants at 60 days after inoculation with the J8L isolate presented root dry weight and nitrogenase activity in the rhizosphere 26 and 50% higher than the uninoculated control, respectively. Tomato plants, 30 days after inoculation with the E5L isolate, presented shoot and root dry weight 39 and 31% higher than the uninoculated control, respectively. Part of the effects observed in maize and tomato can be explained by the nitrogen fixation activity and auxin production. Nitrogenase activity in the maize rhizosphere, 60 days after inoculation was higher in the soil without N supply. The population of diazothrophic bacteria in the rhizosphere of inoculated and non-inoculated maize and tomato plants were not significantly different, showing a probable influence of the native diazotrophic community on the total diazotrophic population. In general, isolates J8L and E5L promoted growth of maize and tomato, showing potential for use as biofertilizers.

Plants often live in association with growth-promoting bacteria, which provide them with several benefits. One such benefit is the lowering of plant ethylene levels through the action of the bacterial enzyme 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase that cleaves the immediate biosynthetic precursor of ethylene, ACC. The plant hormone ethylene is responsible for many aspects of plant growth and development but under stressful conditions ethylene exacerbates stress symptoms. The ACC deaminase-containing bacterium Pseudomonas putida UW4, isolated from the rhizosphere of reeds, is a potent plant growth-promoting strain and as such was used, along with an ACC deaminase minus mutant of this strain, to study the role of ACC deaminase in plant growth-promotion. Also, transgenic plants expressing a bacterial ACC deaminase gene were used to study the role of this enzyme in plant growth and stress tolerance in the presence and absence of nickel. Transcriptional changes occurring within plant tissues were investigated with the use of an Arabidopsis oligonucleotide microarray. The results showed that transcription of genes involved in hormone regulation, secondary metabolism and the stress response changed in all treatments. In particular, the presence of ACC deaminase caused genes for auxin response factors to be up-regulated in plant tissues suggesting a de-repression of auxin signaling in the absence of high levels of ethylene. Also, transgenic plants had longer roots and grew faster than the non-transformed plants and genes involved in the stress response and secondary metabolism were up-regulated. Plants inoculated with bacteria had lower levels of secondary metabolism gene expression and slightly higher stress response gene expression than uninoculated plants. Yet, inoculation with the ACC deaminase-expressing bacterium caused less up-regulation of plant genes involved in stress and defense responses and the down-regulation of genes involved in nitrogen metabolism in comparison to plants inoculated with the ACC deaminase minus mutant. Nickel stress caused the down-regulation of genes involved in photosynthesis and carbon fixation and the up-regulation of genes involved in stress responses, and amino acid and lipid breakdown suggesting energy starvation. When transgenic plants expressing ACC deaminase in the roots were exposed to nickel stress, plant stress symptoms were significantly lower and biomass was significantly higher suggesting that lowering the level of ethylene relieved many of the stress symptoms. In fact, genes involved in photosynthesis, secondary metabolism and nitrate assimilation were up-regulated in transgenic plants compared with non-transformed plants in the presence of nickel, suggesting that ACC deaminase is effective at reducing the severe effects of this metal stress.