[pt] Um novo modelo de polarímetro, baseado em lâminas de birrefringência variável controladas por atuadores piezoelétricos, é apresentado e construído. O dispositivo é baseado na divisão no tempo do sinal luminoso e, comparado a outros modelos de sua categoria, apresenta uma série de atrativos, como baixo custo e simplicidade. É realizada uma comparação de resultados entre o polarímetro desenvolvido e um polarímetro comercial para luz polarizada e parcialmente polarizada. / [en] A new polarimeter model, based on time-varying birefringence caused by piezoelectric-controlled fiber- squeezing plates, is presented and constructed. The device is based on time division of the light signal and, in comparison with other polarimeters of its kind, features many advantages, like low cost and simplicity. The results given by the new polarimeter and a commercial one are compared, using polarized and partially polarized light.

L'imagerie de polarisation apporte des informations complémentaires à l'imagerie conventionnelle. L'oeil humain n'étant cependant pas sensible à la polarisation de la lumière, l'utilisation d'équipements spécifiques est indispensable. Depuis le XIXème siècle, des scientifiques étudient la polarisation de la lumière: d'abord avec de simples lames polarisantes, puis depuis une vingtaine d'années à l'aide de modulateurs à cristaux liquides (CL). Ces derniers présentent un avantage considérable par rapport aux lames polarisantes: ils permettent des vitesses de modulation de la polarisation de la lumière qui ne peuvent être atteintes avec des lames orientées mécaniquement. Les CL nématiques alignés parallèlement et les CL nématiques en hélice sont les plus répandus aujourd'hui, que ce soit dans des équipements grand public tels que les écrans d'ordinateur, ou dans des équipements professionnels. Ils fonctionnent à des fréquences maximales de l'ordre de 50Hz. La vitesse de fonctionnement de ces CL peut toutefois encore être dépassée en utilisant des CL ferroélectriques, pouvant atteindre le kiloHertz. Ces éléments sont rapportés dans la littérature comme des éléments bistables, donc ne permettant pas de moduler la polarisation incidente de manière accordable, contrairement aux CL nématiques. En d'autres termes, un seul modulateur à CL ferroélectriques ne permet a priori pas d'analyser la totalité de la polarisation. Seulement une fraction de la polarisation linéaire du faisceau incident peut être identifiée.Le présent travail vise à montrer qu'a posteriori des CL ferroélectriques convenablement commandés peuvent être utilisés de manière accordable pour analyser la totalité de la polarisation. Partant d'un modulateur à CL ferroélectriques conventionnel, il est montré dans un premier temps que l'on peut analyser la totalité de la polarisation linéaire dès lors que la commande électrique est adaptée. Puis dans un deuxième temps, en exploitant la dépendance en longueur d'onde du comportement du modulateur, nous démontrons que cet élément optique peut être utilisé pour analyser la totalité de la polarisation du faisceau incident, c'est-à-dire la composante linéaire aussi bien que circulaire. Un polarimètre à division temporelle est développé pour prouver la faisabilité d'un polarimètre n'utilisant qu'un seul et unique modulateur à CL ferroélectriques pour tout élément polarisant. Un défaut a également été mis en évidence dans la restitution de l'information de polarisation avec un polarimètre à division temporelle lors de l'observation d'objets en mouvement. Avec un tel système, l'acquisition des différentes images d'intensités nécessaires à l'estimation de l'information de polarisation se fait séquentiellement. Par conséquent, le mouvement d'un objet dans la scène pendant la phase d'acquisition se répercute sur la séquence d'images d'intensités, ce qui produit des artéfacts lors de l'estimation de la polarisation. Des solutions à ce problème sont proposées. / Analyzing the polarization of the light can bring complementary information to the classical imaging. Since the human eye is not capable of catching the polarization, specific sensing device have to be developed. Since the XIXth century, scientists study the polarization of the light: first with polarizing plates, then for the past two decades with liquid crystals (LC). These last elements have the enormous advantage to allow light modulation frequency far beyond what can be reach with mechanically rotated plates. Aligned nematic LC and twisted nematic LC are the most common technologies used today, either in devices made for the general public such as computer screens, or in professional devices. Their typical modulation rate is 50Hz. Higher modulation rate, around the kiloHertz, can be reached using ferroelectric LC. Ferroelectric LC are known to be bistable components, unable to modulate the polarization in an accordable manner, contrary to nematic LC. As a consequence, only a fraction of the linear polarization can be estimated with ferroelectric LC.The present work aims to demonstrate that correctly electrically driven, a ferroelectric LC cell can be used to analyzed the whole polarization of the incident light beam. Firstly, it is shown that a single ferroelectric LC modulator is sufficient to analyze the whole linear polarization, as long as the command signal is properly designed. Secondly, based on the wavelength dependency of the modulator's behavior, it is show that a single modulator can be used to analyze the total polarization, that is both linear and circular polarization. A prototype of division of time polarimeter is developed in order to demonstrate the feasibility of a polarimeter using a single ferroelectric LC modulator and no other polarization sensitive component. In the mean time, a defect has been highlighted while observing moving objects with a division of time polarimeter. With this kind of polarimeter, intensity images needed to compute the polarization information are acquired one after another. As a consequence, the motion of an object is observable on the intensity pictures, which leads to defects on the picture of the estimated polarization information. Solutions to this issue are proposed.

Structural organization refers to the particular ordering of scatterers. Probing structural organization by imaging polarized spectral scatter provides insight into the composition of a medium, and can aid in remote sensing, the identification of tissue pathologies, and material characterization and differentiation. The vector nature of polarized light enables it to interact with optical anisotropies within a medium, while the spectral aspect of polarization is sensitive to small-scale structure. However, many polarization studies have limitations, as they provide qualitative image analysis, incomplete anisotropy information, or both. The ability to image the effects of anisotropy and small-scale structure at multiple wavelengths is key for parameterizing structural organization. The Stokes/Mueller formalism is a framework that quantifies a medium's complete spectral polarization response, and allows for the parameterization of structural organization. Additionally, advances in liquid crystal (LC) technology have resulted in new polarimetric devices. These computer-controlled devices impart spectral polarization effects on the millisecond timescale with no mechanically moving hardware, providing the ability for making rapid polarimetric measurements. This dissertation describes a methodology for revealing structural organization by exploiting the Stokes/Mueller formalism and by utilizing measurements from a spectral imaging polarimeter constructed from variable retardance LC devices, such as liquid crystal variable retarders (LCVRs) and a liquid crystal tunable filter (LCTF). The methodology includes developing the system, the Stokes/Mueller model, and all of the procedures, calibrations, and data interpretation. Developing the system also consists of component and system calibration, a system sensitivity and performance analysis, and finally test measurements for system validation. The final validation measurement is made on a mineral sample for inferring structural organization.

Ultraluminous X-ray (ULX) sources are non-nuclear extragalactic accreting compact objects whose X-ray luminosities exceed the Eddington limit for stellar mass black hole binaries (BHB). Their high luminosities suggest they are either intermediate mass black holes, that their emission is beamed, or that they are emitting at super-Eddington rates. We observed the ULX IC 342 X-1 simultaneously in X-ray and radio with Chandra and the VLA to investigate previously reported unresolved radio emission coincident with the ULX. The Chandra spectrum appears to be consistent with an accretion disc-dominated thermal state and suggests a mass of the black hole using the modeled inner disc temperature to be 157Mʘ ≤ M √ (cosi) ≤ 200 Mʘ. No significant radio emission was observed, consistent with the source being in a thermal disc-dominated state. Reanalysis of previous X-ray observations of the source shows that high energy curvature often interpreted as evidence for supercritical accretion cannot confidently be identified using the 2-10 keV energy band. Black hole systems such as BHBs, ULXs, and AGN represent the greatest test labs in the universe for the study of extreme gravity. Emission from the accretion disk and scattering from the surrounding corona allow study of the ultra-strong gravity and magnetic fields very near the central BH engine. However, many of these effects are imprinted as polarization of the emission and are invisible to spectral and timing studies alone. The outflows from AGN are also thought to play a key role in galaxy shaping and cluster formation. High efficiency and spectral resolution are required to measure ionization-velocities and density parameters from these sources to constrain the outflow structure. Beamline studies and theoretical modeling were carried out to characterize the throughput and spectral resolving power of off-plane gratings for use in future x-ray observatories which will make these measurements. Additionally, synchrotron measurements were carried out to test theoretical predictions of strong polarization response for off-plane diffraction gratings. The empirical results of this study are the first to demonstrate a lack of polarization sensitivity for grazing-incidence off-plane gratings and support more complex modeling results than used previously.

Pas de résumé

<p>Optical lucky imaging polarimetry of HL Tau and XZ Tau in the Taurus-Auriga molecular cloud was carried out with the instrument PolCor at the Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT). The results show that in both the V- and R-band HL Tau show centrosymmetric structures of the polarization angle in its northeastern outflow lobe (degree of polarization ~30%). A C-shaped structure is detected which is also present at near-IR wavelengths (Murakawa, 2008), and higher resolution optical images (Stapelfeldt, 1995). The position angle of the outflow is 47.5+-7.5 degrees, which coincides with previous measurements and the core polarization is observed to decrease with wavelength and a few scenarios are reviewed. Measuring the outflow witdh versus distance and wavelength shows that the longer wavelengths scatter deeper within the cavity wall of the outflow. In XZ Tau the binary is partially resolved, it is indicated by an elongated intensity distribution. The polarization of the parental cloud is detected in XZ Tau through the dichroic extinction of starlight. Lucky imaging at the NOT is a great way of increasing the resolution, shifting increases the sharpness by 0.1 asec and selection the sharpest frames can increase the seeing with 0.4 asec, perhaps more during better conditions.</p>

Soil conditions under vegetation cover and their spatial and temporal variations from point to catchment scale are crucial for understanding hydrological processes within the vadose zone, for managing irrigation and consequently maximizing yield by precision farming. Soil moisture and soil roughness are the key parameters that characterize the soil status. In order to monitor their spatial and temporal variability on large scales, remote sensing techniques are required. Therefore the determination of soil parameters under vegetation cover was approached in this thesis by means of (multi-angular) polarimetric SAR acquisitions at a longer wavelength (L-band, lambda=23cm). In this thesis, the penetration capabilities of L-band are combined with newly developed (multi-angular) polarimetric decomposition techniques to separate the different scattering contributions, which are occurring in vegetation and on ground. Subsequently the ground components are inverted to estimate the soil characteristics. The novel (multi-angular) polarimetric decomposition techniques for soil parameter retrieval are physically-based, computationally inexpensive and can be solved analytically without any a priori knowledge. Therefore they can be applied without test site calibration directly to agricultural areas. The developed algorithms are validated with fully polarimetric SAR data acquired by the airborne E-SAR sensor of the German Aerospace Center (DLR) for three different study areas in Germany. The achieved results reveal inversion rates up to 99% for the soil moisture and soil roughness retrieval in agricultural areas. However, in forested areas the inversion rate drops significantly for most of the algorithms, because the inversion in forests is invalid for the applied scattering models at L-band. The validation against simultaneously acquired field measurements indicates an estimation accuracy (root mean square error) of 5-10vol.% for the soil moisture (range of in situ values: 1-46vol.%) and of 0.37-0.45cm for the soil roughness (range of in situ values: 0.5-4.0cm) within the catchment. Hence, a continuous monitoring of soil parameters with the obtained precision, excluding frozen and snow covered conditions, is possible. Especially future, fully polarimetric, space-borne, long wavelength SAR missions can profit distinctively from the developed polarimetric decomposition techniques for separation of ground and volume contributions as well as for soil parameter retrieval on large spatial scales. / Zur Verbesserung der hydrologischen Abflussmodellierung, der Flutvorhersage, der gezielten Bewässerung von landwirtschaftlichen Nutzflächen und zum Schutz vor Ernteausfällen ist die Bestimmung der Bodenfeuchte und der Bodenrauhigkeit von grosser Bedeutung. Aufgrund der hohen zeitlichen sowie räumlichen Dynamik dieser Bodenparameter ist eine flächenhafte Erfassung mit hoher Auflösung und in kurzen zeitlichen Abständen notwendig. In situ Messtechniken stellen eine sehr zeit- und personalaufwändige Alternative dar, deshalb werden innovative Fernerkundungsverfahren mit aktivem Radar erprobt. Diese Aufnahmetechniken sind von Wetter- und Beleuchtungsverhältnissen unabhängig und besitzen zudem die Möglichkeit, abhängig von der Wellenlänge, in Medien einzudringen. Mit dem in dieser Arbeit verwendeten polarimetrischen Radar mit synthetischer Apertur (PolSAR) werden die Veränderungen der Polarisationen ausgewertet, da diese aufgrund der physikalischen Eigenschaften der reflektierenden Medien objektspezifisch verändert und gestreut werden. Es kann dadurch ein Bezug zwischen der empfangenen Radarwelle und den dielektrischen Eigenschaften (Feuchtegehalt) sowie der Oberflächengeometrie (Rauhigkeit) des Bodens hergestellt werden. Da vor allem in den gemässigten Klimazonen die landwirtschaftlichen Nutzflächen die meiste Zeit des Jahres mit Vegetation bestanden sind, wurden in dieser Dissertation Verfahren entwickelt, um die Bodenfeuchte und die Bodenrauhigkeit unter der Vegetation erfassen zu können. Um die einzelnen Rückstreubeiträge der Vegetation und des Bodens voneinander zu trennen, wurde die Eindringfähigkeit von längeren Wellenlängen (L-band, lambda=23cm) mit neu entwickelten (multi-angularen) polarimetrischen Dekompositionstechniken kombiniert, um die Komponente des Bodens zu extrahieren und auszuwerten. Für die Auswertung wurden polarimetrische Streumodelle benutzt, um die Bodenkomponente zu modellieren und dann mit der extrahierten Bodenkomponente der aufgenommenen Daten zu vergleichen. Die beste Übereinstimmung von Modell und Daten wurde als die gegebene Bodencharakteristik gewertet und dementsprechend invertiert. Die neu entwickelten, polarimetrischen Dekompositionstechniken für langwelliges polarimetrisches SAR basieren auf physikalischen Prinzipien, benötigen wenig Rechenzeit, erfordern keine Kalibrierung und sind ohne Verwendung von a priori Wissen analytisch lösbar. Um die entwickelten Algorithmen zu testen, wurden in drei verschiedenen Untersuchungsgebieten in Deutschland mit dem flugzeuggetragenen E-SAR Sensor des Deutschen Zentrums für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) polarimetrische SAR Daten aufgenommen. Die Auswertungen der PolSAR Daten haben bestätigt, dass die besten Invertierungsergebnisse mit langen Wellenlängen erzielt werden können (L-Band). Des Weiteren konnten bei der Bestimmung der Bodenfeuchte und der Bodenrauhigkeit hohe Inversionsraten erreicht werden (bis zu 99% der Untersuchungsfläche). Es hat sich gezeigt, dass die polarimetrischen Streumodelle bei der gegebenen Wellenlänge nicht für bewaldete Gebiete geeignet sind, was die Anwendbarkeit des Verfahrens auf landwirtschaftliche Nutzflächen einschränkt. Die Validierung mit Bodenmessungen in den Untersuchungsgebieten, die zeitgleich zu den PolSAR Aufnahmen durchgeführt wurden, hat ergeben, dass eine kontinuierliche Beobachtung des Bodenzustandes (ausgenommen in Zeiten mit gefrorenem oder Schnee bedecktem Boden) mit einer Genauigkeit (Wurzel des mittleren quadratischen Fehlers) von 5-10vol.% für die Bodenfeuchte (in situ Messbereich: 1-46vol.%) und von 0.37-0.45cm für die Bodenrauhigkeit (in situ Messbereich: 0.5-4.0cm) möglich ist. Besonders künftige Fernerkundungsmissionen mit langwelligem, voll polarimetrischem SAR können von den entwickelten Dekompositionstechniken profitieren, um die Vegetationskomponente von der Bodenkomponente zu trennen und die Charakteristik des Oberbodens flächenhaft zu bestimmen.

Optical lucky imaging polarimetry of HL Tau and XZ Tau in the Taurus-Auriga molecular cloud was carried out with the instrument PolCor at the Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT). The results show that in both the V- and R-band HL Tau show centrosymmetric structures of the polarization angle in its northeastern outflow lobe (degree of polarization ~30%). A C-shaped structure is detected which is also present at near-IR wavelengths (Murakawa, 2008), and higher resolution optical images (Stapelfeldt, 1995). The position angle of the outflow is 47.5+-7.5 degrees, which coincides with previous measurements and the core polarization is observed to decrease with wavelength and a few scenarios are reviewed. Measuring the outflow witdh versus distance and wavelength shows that the longer wavelengths scatter deeper within the cavity wall of the outflow. In XZ Tau the binary is partially resolved, it is indicated by an elongated intensity distribution. The polarization of the parental cloud is detected in XZ Tau through the dichroic extinction of starlight. Lucky imaging at the NOT is a great way of increasing the resolution, shifting increases the sharpness by 0.1 asec and selection the sharpest frames can increase the seeing with 0.4 asec, perhaps more during better conditions.

La estructura y componentes del ojo humano hacen que los cambios que se producen sobre el estado de polarización de la luz que emerge de él, tras realizar un doble paso y sufrir una reflexión en la retina, sean complejos y a priori poco predecibles. Esos cambios pueden influir en los resultados obtenidos con dispositivos que analizan la luz reflejada en la retina. Para conocer mejor los cambios que el ojo origina sobre un haz que lo atraviesa y los fenómenos a los que da lugar, se ha llevado a cabo un estudio de la calidad de imagen retiniana en función de los estados de polarización, así como un estudio espacial de los distintos parámetros de polarización a partir del cálculo de matrices de Mueller. Teniendo como base el método de doble paso, se ha diseñado y construido un polarímetro de imagen que utiliza retardadores variables de cristal líquido en los brazos generador y analizador. Con este dispositivo se han registrado series de dieciséis imágenes de doble paso correspondientes a las combinaciones independientes de estados de polarización de entrada y salida. Los resultados para varios sujetos muestran que la calidad de imagen depende en gran medida del estado de polarización de salida. Sin embargo, la influencia de la polarización de entrada, calculada usando matrices de Mueller espacialmente resueltas, juega un papel poco significativo. Por otra parte, el estudio polarimétrico de las imágenes de doble paso muestra que (1) la parte central de las imágenes tiene un grado de polarización del 80% frente a un 25% en la periferia; (2) el retardo introducido depende del observador, aunque la birrefringencia que presenta el ojo es lineal; (3) el dicroísmo es coherente con la longitud de onda empleada y (4) el valor de la polarizancia indica la existencia de cierta birrefringencia circular. / The structure and components of the human eye make changes produced on the polarization state of the light emerging from it after a double-pass through ocular media and a reflection in the retina be complicated and hardly predectible. Those changes can influence on the results obtained with any device analyzing the light reflected in the retina. A study of the retinal image quality as a function of the polarization state has been performed. A spatially resolved polarimetric study of different polarization parameters using Mueller-matrices was also performed. An imaging polarimeter adapted to an ophthalmoscopic double-pass apparatus using two ellectronically controlled liquid-crystal variable retarders has been developed. Series of sixteen double-pass images corresponding to independent combinations generator-analyzer have been recorded. Results obtained for several subjects show that the estimation of the image quality depends strongly on the polarization state in the exit pathway. However, the influence of the entrance polarization, calculated using spatially resolved Mueller-matrices is nearly negligible. On the other hand, the polarimetric study of double-pass images shows that (1) the light forming the central part of the images presents a degree of polarization of 80% while this is reduced to around 25% for the light in the skirts; (2) the retardation introduced by the eye in a double-pass is quite dependent on observers, although the birefringence is linear; (3) the dicroism is coherent with the wavelength used, and (4) the value of the polarizance indicates the existency of circular birrefringence.

Polarized light has the ability to increase the specificity of the investigation of biomedical samples and is finding greater utilization in the fields of medical diagnostics, sensing, and measurement. In particular, this dissertation focuses on the application of polarized light to address a major obstacle in the development of an optical based polarimetric non-invasive glucose detector that has the potential to improve the quality of life and prolong the life expectancy of the millions of people afflicted with the disease diabetes mellitus. By achieving the mapping of the relative variations in rabbit corneal birefringence, it is hoped that the understanding of the results contained herein will facilitate the development of techniques to eliminate the effects of changing corneal birefringence on polarimetric glucose measurement through the aqueous humor of the eye. This dissertation also focuses on the application of polarized light to address a major downside of cardiovascular biomechanics research, which is the utilization of toxic chemicals to prepare samples for histological examination. To this end, a polarization microscopy image processing technique is applied to non-stained cardiovascular samples as a means to eliminate, for certain cardiac samples, the necessity for staining using toxic chemicals. The results from this work have the potential to encourage more investigators to join the field of cardiac biomechanics, which studies the remodeling processes responsible for cardiovascular diseases such as myocardial infarct (heart attacks) and congestive heart failure. Cardiovascular disease is epidemic, particularly amongst the population group older than 65 years, and the number of people affected by this disease is expected to increase appreciably as the baby boomer generation transitions into this older, high risk population group. A better understanding of the responsible mechanisms for cardiac tissue remodeling will facilitate the development of better prevention and treatment regimens by improving the early detection and diagnosis of this disease.