Safety in highway work zones has become a concern among Departments of Transportation (DOTs) throughout the country as the highway network has begun to age and more maintenance and construction work has been necessary. Safety in highway work zones is more compromised than in other areas for two reasons. First, the construction workers are near traveling vehicles as they perform their already dangerous work, increasing the risk of an accident. Second, the highway user is at increased risk because of the increase in roadside obstacles, because other vehicles are more likely to act in unpredictable ways (such as sudden braking or lane changes), and because vehicles are more likely to be traveling closer together (due to decreased capacity). Researchers are looking at several mechanisms for improving safety in highway work zones, including lowering the mean speed of vehicles in the work zone, encouraging drivers to be alert in work zones, improving the control of traffic in merging areas, and improving the safety devices that separate vehicles and construction workers. This study focuses on the goal of reducing speed in work zones. First, methods of speed reduction used by state DOTs throughout the country are identified, and the research surrounding them is summarized. Next, the methodology and results of a field study that tests the efficacy of the Speed Monitoring Display (SMD) are described in detail. Finally, the results of a survey that was conducted to ascertain drivers' opinions of the SMD are presented. For the field study, three main conditions were analyzed: a no-treatment case, with the MUTCD signs and barriers; a treatment case using the SMD; and a treatment case using a police vehicle. In the no-treatment case, average vehicle speed was reduced about 3 mph as vehicles entered the work area of the work zone. With the SMD, average vehicle speed was reduced an additional 4 mph. With the police vehicle, average vehicle speed was reduced about 6 mph more than in the no-treatment case. Thus, average vehicle speed was reduced in all treatment cases; however, the police vehicle was slightly more effective than the SMD at reducing average speeds. (These conclusions are valid at a 95 percent confidence level.) The results of the survey also suggest that the SMD is a promising option for state DOTs. According to drivers' self-reports, those who normally drive a little faster than the speed limit are likely to slow down in reaction to an SMD, but drivers who normally ignore the speed limit are likely to ignore an SMD. The majority of drivers surveyed had positive reactions to SMDs, reporting that they feel SMDs are accurate, not distracting, and not difficult to read.

Although hot spots policing has become one of the most promising policing strategies, the empirical evidence on the effectiveness of hot spots policing does not suggest what police should be doing in crime hot spots. To date, police enforcement actions – pedestrian investigations, traffic enforcement, and arrests – still dominate American policing. Yet empirical studies of these actions have not: focused on micro-geographic areas, employed multiple measures of police enforcement actions, or empirically compared the effectiveness of different enforcement actions. Given these gaps in the literature, a mixed-methods study sought to answer four research questions. (1) Do four police enforcement actions focused on offenders or potential offenders reduce violent crime in hot spots? The four police enforcement actions examined were pedestrian investigations, traffic enforcement events, quality of life arrests, and violent crime arrests. (2) Are any one of these four police enforcement actions more effective than the others? (3) When police commanders allocate resources to crime hot spots, what do police commanders think they are doing? (4) What are police commanders’ rationales for what they do in crime hot spots? The first two questions were answered using official data from the Philadelphia Police Department. A purposive sample of 169 high crime street blocks and intersections was drawn and longitudinal data analyses examined the effects of police enforcement actions on monthly violent crime counts from 2009 to 2013 (n = 10,140). Wald Tests were used to test for the differential effectiveness of the four enforcement actions. Qualitative methods answered the remaining two research questions. Field observations of crime strategy meetings (May, 2014 to August, 2014) and interviews with police commanders (November, 2014 to February, 2015) were conducted. The quantitative results found total enforcement and pedestrian stop levels in the previous or same month linked to higher expected monthly violent crime counts. The positive effect of pedestrian stops was significantly larger than the effects of traffic enforcement or quality of life arrests. Despite the positive relationship between police enforcement and violent crime, the qualitative results provided insight into what police commanders thought they were doing in crime hot spots. Three themes emerged from the qualitative data: (1) “locking down” crime hot spots, (2) disrupting high risk offenders, and (3) educating potential victims. Police commanders rationalized these beliefs with four explanations of their effectiveness: (1) making offenders “think twice”, (2) denying potential offenders and victims certain places in order to reduce crime opportunities, (3) getting high risk offenders “off the street”, and (4) target hardening. Drawing on theorizing for how police enforcement actions might actually link to higher levels of crime (Grabosky, 1996) and methodological concerns raised by Taylor (2015), five possible explanations for the observed positive relationships among police enforcement actions and violent crime are provided: (1) an anticipatory effect, (2) over-deterrence, (3) escalation, (4) unintended enticement and self-fulfilling prophecies, and (5) temporal scaling. The anticipatory effect explanation centers on the police correctly anticipating outbreaks of violent crime but violent crime still not being reduced due to (1) dosage, (2) the overuse of enforcement, (3) police legitimacy, (4) temporal displacement or two components the study’s design (5) imprecise measurement and (6) lack of a proper counterfactual. Additionally, police enforcement actions may inadvertently reduce guardianship though over-deterrence, escalate competition among rival offenders, or inform potential offenders of crimes they could or “should” be committing. Finally, the study’s temporal scale (i.e., months) may not be fine enough to capture the actual cycling of how increased enforcement actions produce lower violent crime levels. The qualitative data are drawn upon to possibly support these explanations. Additionally, the pros and cons of police commanders’ perspectives on the use and effectiveness of enforcement actions are discussed in context of the criminological theory and crime control literatures. Finally, the results are discussed in terms of their implications for crime control theory and policy. / Criminal Justice

Objectifs. L’objectif de ce mémoire est de parfaire nos connaissances quant à l’effet des actions policières sur les collisions routières au Québec. Ultimement, ce mémoire permettra d’identifier les conditions nécessaires pour que l’action policière influe sur les comportements des automobilistes. Pour se faire, deux études de cas sont employées. Dans un premier temps, nous évaluons l’effet d’un relâchement d’environ 60 % dans l’émission de constats d’infraction par les policiers de la ville de Québec sur les collisions avec blessures. Dans cet article, nous distinguons également les effets respectifs des constats d’infraction, des interceptions policières sans constat et des médias. Dans un second temps, nous évaluons l’impact d’une stratégie de sécurité routière mise en place conjointement par l’Association des directeurs de police du Québec (ADPQ) et la Société de l’assurance automobile du Québec (SAAQ). Dans les deux cas, un changement important est survenu dans l’émission de constats d’infraction émis en vertu du Code de la sécurité routière (CSR). Méthodologie. Afin d’évaluer l’effet de ces deux stratégies, nous avons agrégé les données sur les collisions et infractions au CSR sur une base mensuelle. Ces données proviennent principalement des rapports de collisions et des constats d’infraction remplis par les policiers et transmis à la SAAQ. Dans l’ensemble, nous avons utilisé un devis quasi-expérimental, soit celui des séries chronologiques interrompues. Résultats. Les résultats des deux articles démontrent que les policiers sont des acteurs clés en matière de sécurité routière. Les collisions avec blessures sont affectées par les fluctuations de leurs activités. La première série d’analyses établit qu’un relâchement d’environ 60 % dans le nombre de constats émis par les policiers se traduit par une hausse d’environ 10 % des collisions avec blessures, ce qui correspond à 15 collisions avec blessures supplémentaires par mois sur le territoire du Service de police de la ville de Québec. De plus, nos résultats montrent qu’une interception policière suivie d’un avertissement verbal n’est pas suffisante pour prévenir les collisions. De même, l’effet observé n’est pas attribuable aux médias. La deuxième série d’analyse montre que la stratégie conjointe de l’ADPQ et de la SAAQ, caractérisée par une hausse des constats émis et des campagnes médiatiques, fut suivie de baisses variant entre 14 et 36 % des collisions avec blessures graves. Interprétation. Les résultats démontrent que les actions policières ont une influence sur le bilan routier. Par contre, avant d’influer sur le comportement des automobilistes, certaines conditions doivent être respectées. Premièrement, l’intensité des contrôles policiers doit être suffisamment modifiée par rapport à son niveau initial. Deuxièmement, que ce soit une hausse ou une baisse, ce niveau doit être maintenu sur une période relativement longue (entre 12 et 24 mois environ) pour que les automobilistes soient exposés au message pénal et qu’ils considèrent ce changement dans le niveau de répression comme étant crédible. Troisièmement, l’émission de constats est un élément clé; la simple présence policière n’est pas suffisante pour prévenir les collisions. Enfin, les campagnes de sensibilisation semblent importantes, mais d’autres études sont nécessaires pour mieux apprécier leur rôle. / Objectives. The goal of this thesis is to further our understanding about the effect of police activities on traffic collisions in the Province of Quebec. The study also aims to pinpoint conditions that must be met to insure the effectiveness of such police interventions. To do so, we use two case studies. In the first place, we assess the impact of a 60% reduction in traffic citations issued by police officers on collisions with injuries. In this article, we are also able to estimate the respective effects of traffic citations, police interceptions not leading to the issuance of a citation and media coverage. In the second place, we evaluate a road safety program implemented by the Quebec Association of Chiefs of Police (ADPQ) and the Societé de l’assurance automobile du Québec (SAAQ). In both cases, there was a substantial change in the level of traffic citations handed down by police officers. Method. In order to assess the impact of both strategies, data on collisions and citations were aggregated on a monthly basis. These data come from police reports on traffic citations and collisions that are transmitted and managed by the SAAQ. In all cases, we used a quasi experimental design: interrupted time series. Results. Results from both articles show that police officers are key players in a road safety policy. Collisions with injuries vary according to the intensity of police enforcement activities. The first set of analyses establishes that a 60% reduction in the issuance of traffic citations is associated with a 10% increase in collisions with injuries (about 15 additional collisions per month on the Quebec City Police jurisdiction). Furthermore, simple interceptions (not leading to the issuance of a citation) as well as media coverage were not statistically linked to this increase. The second series of analyses demonstrate that the joint strategy of the ADPQ and SAAQ, characterized by an increase in police arrests and media campaigns, was associated with decreases varying between 14 and 36% in collisions with serious injuries in the Province of Quebec. Conclusion. Results from our analyses show that police activities have an important impact on the road toll. However, some conditions must be met in order to stimulate changes in driver behaviors. First, the intensity of police controls must be substantially leveled up relatively to the previous level. Second, this new level must be maintained for a long lasting period (between 12 and 24 months). By doing so, automobilists will have the opportunity to be exposed the legal threat and consider this threat as credible. Third, the issuance of traffic citations is a key component; the simple presence of police officers is not sufficient to produce a preventive effect on collisions. At last, media campaigns appear to be a central component of police enforcement programs but further studies are need to precisely estimate their role and contribution to collision prevention.

Objectifs. L’objectif de ce mémoire est de parfaire nos connaissances quant à l’effet des actions policières sur les collisions routières au Québec. Ultimement, ce mémoire permettra d’identifier les conditions nécessaires pour que l’action policière influe sur les comportements des automobilistes. Pour se faire, deux études de cas sont employées. Dans un premier temps, nous évaluons l’effet d’un relâchement d’environ 60 % dans l’émission de constats d’infraction par les policiers de la ville de Québec sur les collisions avec blessures. Dans cet article, nous distinguons également les effets respectifs des constats d’infraction, des interceptions policières sans constat et des médias. Dans un second temps, nous évaluons l’impact d’une stratégie de sécurité routière mise en place conjointement par l’Association des directeurs de police du Québec (ADPQ) et la Société de l’assurance automobile du Québec (SAAQ). Dans les deux cas, un changement important est survenu dans l’émission de constats d’infraction émis en vertu du Code de la sécurité routière (CSR). Méthodologie. Afin d’évaluer l’effet de ces deux stratégies, nous avons agrégé les données sur les collisions et infractions au CSR sur une base mensuelle. Ces données proviennent principalement des rapports de collisions et des constats d’infraction remplis par les policiers et transmis à la SAAQ. Dans l’ensemble, nous avons utilisé un devis quasi-expérimental, soit celui des séries chronologiques interrompues. Résultats. Les résultats des deux articles démontrent que les policiers sont des acteurs clés en matière de sécurité routière. Les collisions avec blessures sont affectées par les fluctuations de leurs activités. La première série d’analyses établit qu’un relâchement d’environ 60 % dans le nombre de constats émis par les policiers se traduit par une hausse d’environ 10 % des collisions avec blessures, ce qui correspond à 15 collisions avec blessures supplémentaires par mois sur le territoire du Service de police de la ville de Québec. De plus, nos résultats montrent qu’une interception policière suivie d’un avertissement verbal n’est pas suffisante pour prévenir les collisions. De même, l’effet observé n’est pas attribuable aux médias. La deuxième série d’analyse montre que la stratégie conjointe de l’ADPQ et de la SAAQ, caractérisée par une hausse des constats émis et des campagnes médiatiques, fut suivie de baisses variant entre 14 et 36 % des collisions avec blessures graves. Interprétation. Les résultats démontrent que les actions policières ont une influence sur le bilan routier. Par contre, avant d’influer sur le comportement des automobilistes, certaines conditions doivent être respectées. Premièrement, l’intensité des contrôles policiers doit être suffisamment modifiée par rapport à son niveau initial. Deuxièmement, que ce soit une hausse ou une baisse, ce niveau doit être maintenu sur une période relativement longue (entre 12 et 24 mois environ) pour que les automobilistes soient exposés au message pénal et qu’ils considèrent ce changement dans le niveau de répression comme étant crédible. Troisièmement, l’émission de constats est un élément clé; la simple présence policière n’est pas suffisante pour prévenir les collisions. Enfin, les campagnes de sensibilisation semblent importantes, mais d’autres études sont nécessaires pour mieux apprécier leur rôle. / Objectives. The goal of this thesis is to further our understanding about the effect of police activities on traffic collisions in the Province of Quebec. The study also aims to pinpoint conditions that must be met to insure the effectiveness of such police interventions. To do so, we use two case studies. In the first place, we assess the impact of a 60% reduction in traffic citations issued by police officers on collisions with injuries. In this article, we are also able to estimate the respective effects of traffic citations, police interceptions not leading to the issuance of a citation and media coverage. In the second place, we evaluate a road safety program implemented by the Quebec Association of Chiefs of Police (ADPQ) and the Societé de l’assurance automobile du Québec (SAAQ). In both cases, there was a substantial change in the level of traffic citations handed down by police officers. Method. In order to assess the impact of both strategies, data on collisions and citations were aggregated on a monthly basis. These data come from police reports on traffic citations and collisions that are transmitted and managed by the SAAQ. In all cases, we used a quasi experimental design: interrupted time series. Results. Results from both articles show that police officers are key players in a road safety policy. Collisions with injuries vary according to the intensity of police enforcement activities. The first set of analyses establishes that a 60% reduction in the issuance of traffic citations is associated with a 10% increase in collisions with injuries (about 15 additional collisions per month on the Quebec City Police jurisdiction). Furthermore, simple interceptions (not leading to the issuance of a citation) as well as media coverage were not statistically linked to this increase. The second series of analyses demonstrate that the joint strategy of the ADPQ and SAAQ, characterized by an increase in police arrests and media campaigns, was associated with decreases varying between 14 and 36% in collisions with serious injuries in the Province of Quebec. Conclusion. Results from our analyses show that police activities have an important impact on the road toll. However, some conditions must be met in order to stimulate changes in driver behaviors. First, the intensity of police controls must be substantially leveled up relatively to the previous level. Second, this new level must be maintained for a long lasting period (between 12 and 24 months). By doing so, automobilists will have the opportunity to be exposed the legal threat and consider this threat as credible. Third, the issuance of traffic citations is a key component; the simple presence of police officers is not sufficient to produce a preventive effect on collisions. At last, media campaigns appear to be a central component of police enforcement programs but further studies are need to precisely estimate their role and contribution to collision prevention.