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Polymer-coated controlled-release fertilizers (PCFs) are the most widely used class of fertilizers in the production of container-grown nursery plants. Nutrient release from PCFs is primarily influenced by temperature. The objective of this study was to determine the influences of temperature and time on the nutrient release patterns of three PCFs (each with a rated longevity of 8-9 months), each using a different coating technology: Osmocote Plus™ 15N-3.93P-9.96K, Polyon™ 18N-2.62P-9.96K, and Nutricote™ 18N-2.62P-6.64K. The first three experiments investigated the effects of time on long-term nutrient release. In Expt. 1, each of the three PCFs were placed in flasks of distilled water maintained at 40°C for 22 weeks. Fertilizer solutions were poured off at bi-weekly intervals and measured for electrical conductivity (EC) and NO3-N, NH4-N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn concentrations. Overall, nutrient release for the three PCFs was higher and more variable in the first eight weeks than later in the experiment. Polyon's™ macronutrient release was generally more gradual than that of the other products. Micronutrient release patterns varied substantially between fertilizers and nutrients. In Expt. 2, pine bark (PB)-filled containers were amended with the three PCFs and irrigated regularly in a greenhouse. PCFs were removed from containers when Osmocote Plus'™ NO₃-N supply was ~66% expended and analyzed for EC, NO₃-N, NH₄-N, and P concentration. Except for P, the percentage of each nutrient remaining was roughly comparable to those remaining at the corresponding stage of Expt. 1, suggesting that PCF nutrient release behavior in the laboratory method is comparable with nutrient release behavior in PB in the greenhouse. At the end of Expts. 1 and 2, Osmocote Plus™ had expended a higher percentage of its nutrients than the other fertilizers. In Expt. 3, substrate solutions were collected weekly from PB-filled containers (same treatments as in Expt. 2) and EC was determined. The substrate solution EC of Osmocote Plus™-fertilized PB began to decline sooner than that of the other fertilizers. Overall, these three experiments led to the conclusion that Osmocote Plus™ nutrient release declines more quickly than does Polyon™ or Nutricote™, while Polyon™ has the most gradual nutrient release pattern. The objective of the second set of experiments was to determine the effects of temperature on short-term nutrient release. In Expt. 4, 14 g of each PCF was maintained at 40°C until ~33% of the NO3-N content in Osmocote Plus™ was expended. Each fertilizer was then placed in a sand column and leached with distilled water at ~100 mL/h. Columns were then incrementally subjected to a simulated diurnal container temperature change from 20°C to 40°C and back to 20°C over a period of 20 h. Leachate was collected hourly and measured for soluble salts and NO₃-N and NH₄-N concentrations. For all fertilizers, nutrient release increased and decreased with the respective increase and decrease in temperature. Nutrient release patterns of the three fertilizers were significantly different, with Osmocote Plus™ showing the greatest overall change in nutrient release between 20°C and 40°C and Nutricote™ the least. In Expt. 5, PCFs were placed in flasks of distilled water in constant temperature baths. Initially, fertilizers were held at 40°C for three days and then at temperatures of 22, 28, 34, or 40°C for two weeks. Fertilizer solutions were poured off after the first and second weeks. Only solutions from the second week were analyzed for soluble salts and NO₃-N, NH₄-N, P, and K concentrations. For Osmocote Plus™ and Polyon™, there was a 29% to 86% (depending on the nutrient measured) mean increase in nutrient release between 22°C and 40°C, whereas for Nutricote™ there was a 345% to 364% (depending on the nutrient measured) mean increase. The overall mean increases in nutrient release in Expt. 4 were between 1032% and 4023%, whereas the mean increases in Expt. 5 were between 29% and 364%. In summary, the second set of experiments found that PCF nutrient release was highly sensitive to diurnal temperature changes. / Master of Science

Cerium oxide nanoparticles (nanoceria) have shown great potential as antioxidant and radioprotective agents for applications in cancer therapy. Recently, various polymer-coated nanoceria preparations have been developed to improve their aqueous solubility and allow for surface functionalization of these nanoparticles. However, the interaction of polymer-coated nanoceria with cells, their uptake mechanism, and subcellular localization are poorly understood. Herein, we engineered polymer-coated cerium oxide nanoparticles with different surface charges (positive, negative, and neutral) and studied their internalization and toxicity in normal and cancer cell lines. The results showed that nanoceria with a positive or neutral charge enters most of the cell lines studied, while nanoceria with a negative charge internalizes mostly in the cancer cell lines. Moreover, upon entry into the cells, nanoceria is localized to different cell compartments (e.g., cytoplasm and lysosomes) depending on the nanoparticles surface charge. The internalization and subcellular localization of nanoceria plays a key role in the nanoparticles cytotoxicity profile, exhibiting significant toxicity when they localize in the lysosomes of the cancer cells. In contrast, minimal toxicity is observed when they localize into the cytoplasm or do not enter the cells. Taken together, these results indicate that the differential surface-charge-dependent localization of nanoceria in normal and cancer cells plays a critical role in the nanoparticles toxicity profile.

DNA origami templates have been studied due the versatility of shapes that can be designed and their compatibility with various materials. This has potential for future electronic applications. This work presents studies performed on the electrical properties of DNA origami templated gold nanowires. Using a DNA origami tile, gold nanowires are site specifically attached in a “C” shape, and with the use of electron beam induced deposition of metal, electrically characterized. These wires are electrically conductive with resistivities as low as 4.24 x 10-5 Ω-m. During moderate temperature processing nanowires formed on DNA origami templates are shown to be affected by the high surface mobility of metal atoms. Annealing studies of DNA origami gold nanowires are conducted, evaluating the effects of atom surface mobility at various temperatures. It is shown that the nanowires separate into individual islands at temperatures as low as 180° C. This work shows that with the use of a polymer template the temperature at which island formation occurs can be raised to 210° C. This could allow for post processing techniques that would otherwise not be possible.

Nitrogen (N) is the most commonly over-applied nutrient in urban environments because of the large visual and growth increases. This over-application has led to an increase in the loss of N gas in the forms of ammonia and nitrous oxide, as well as an increase in nitrate leaching to surface and groundwater. Furthermore, excess N results in increased maintenance costs and landfill volume due to increased shoot growth from mowed clipping removal. Polymer coated urea (PCU) has proven to be an excellent source to these losses of N to the environment, but rate and timing parameters need study. A two-year field study, on sand and sandy loam soils in Provo, UT, was initiated in April 2014. Seven fertilized treatments included: urea split applied monthly; a single application of PCU (Agrium One Ap) applied in spring, a single PCU application in fall; two evenly split applications in spring and late summer; and three evenly split applications in spring, late summer, and late fall. These were compared to an untreated control. In addition the two application of PCU also had reduced rates of half and three-quarters, in addition to the full rate. Height and verdure measurements were taken on a weekly basis, along with periodic visual and biomass readings. All fertilized treatments resulted in a significant response to N as compared to the control. The single annual application treatments had significantly greater shoot growth during the weeks immediately after application and a significant reduction in verdure months later and, therefore, were unacceptable for consumer recommendation. Two applications of PCU, either at the three-quarter or full rates, were nearly identical in all measurements as compared to the spoon feeding of urea applied monthly. The half rate of two applications showed signs of inadequate N. Three applications of PCU was identical to two and, therefore, not recommended. This study shows two applications of PCU at the three-quarter rate is equally effective as spoon feeding the N. Doing so would result in less labor for fertilization. Further work is needed to evaluate other timing approaches for a single annual application, as well as long term effects of a reduced rate of N.

Plants require N to complete their life cycle. Without adequate concentration of N, crops will not produce their potential yields. For turfgrass systems, N fertilizer application allows for the maintenance of functional, aesthetic, and recreational properties. However, fertilizer mismanagement is common and leads to N pollution in the environment. Controlled-release and slow-release fertilizers can enhance nitrogen (N)-use efficiency, reduce N pollution, minimize the need for repeated fertilizer applications, and reduce turfgrass shoot growth and associated costs. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of these fertilizers in the Intermountain West, research is needed. The timing of N release was evaluated for seven urea fertilizers: uncoated, sulfur coated (SCU), polymer-sulfur coated (PSCU), and four polymer-coated (PCU) with release timings of 45, 75, 120, and 180 d estimated release. These products were placed on bare soil, a Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) thatch layer, and incorporated into soil. These three placement treatments were replicated to allow for enough samples to be placed in two locations. The first was outside in a field to represent field conditions with diurnal fluctuating temperatures and the second was placed in a storage facility to replicate laboratory conditions with static diurnal temperatures. The PCU prills incorporated into soil under field conditions generally released N over the estimated release period. However, when applied to bare soil or thatch, N from PCU had 80% or greater N release by 35 d after application regardless of expected release time. Fertilizers under laboratory conditions had minimal N release despite having similar average daily temperatures, suggesting that fluctuating temperatures impact N release. The PSCU and SCU treatments were no different from uncoated urea, showing no slow release properties for this particular product. Spring-applied N fertilizer trials were conducted over two years to determine the optimal N rate for Kentucky bluegrass. Similar PCU120 products were applied at 50, 75, and 100% of the recommended full rate, while also being compared to an unfertilized control and urea applied either all at once or split monthly. Spring-applied PCU showed minimal initial N response while urea applied all at once resulted in an initial spike of N uptake. Once PCU began to release N, there was minimal difference for all rates compared to urea split monthly for biomass growth, verdure, and shoot tissue N. Although at the 50% rate, there were a few sampling dates with slower growth and lower verdure. The decrease in verdure at this low rate was slight, and it is recommended that PCU could be applied effectively at a reduced rate between 50 and 75%. Although for better results, additional quick release N is required to compensate for early season lag in N release.

Objetivou-se avaliar a utilização de ureia encapsulada de liberação Lenta nas dietas de vacas em lactação e seus efeitos sobre o consumo e digestibilidade aparente total da matéria seca e dos nutrientes, fermentação ruminal, produção microbiana ruminal, produção e composição do leite, e as concentrações de parâmetros sangüíneos. Foram utilizadas 16 vacas da raça Holandesa com produção média de 30,0 kg/dia, agrupadas em 4 quadrados latinos 4x4 balanceados e contemporâneos, recebendo as dietas experimentais: 1) Controle (CT), ração sem a inclusão de ureia; 2) Ureia pecuária (UP), com a utilização de 1,0% de UP na ração, baseada na matéria seca (MS); 3) Ureia encapsulada 1 (UE1), com a utilização de 1,0% de UE1 na ração, baseada na MS; e 4) Ureia encapsulada 2 (UE2), com a utilização de 1,0% de UE2 na ração, baseada na MS. O volumoso utilizado foi a silagem de milho, em relação de 50:50 (relação volumoso:concentrado). A produção de leite e o consumo de matéria seca foram mensurados diariamente durante todo o período experimental. As amostras utilizadas para análise da composição do leite foram coletadas no 16º dia de cada período experimental, sendo provenientes das duas ordenhas diárias. As amostras de sangue foram coletadas em tubos vacuolizados por punção da veia e/ou artéria coccígea. As amostras de líquido ruminal foram coletadas com a utilização de sonda esofágica três horas após a alimentação matinal. A digestibilidade foi determinada por meio de indicador interno FDAi. Não houve diferença para consumo de matéria seca, matéria orgânica, proteína bruta, extrato etéreo, fibra em detergente neutro e nutrientes digestíveis totais. Foi observado aumento na digestibilidade da proteína bruta e nos nutrientes digestíveis totais observados nos animais submetidos às dietas contendo ureia quando comparados aos animais alimentados com a dieta controle. Não houve efeito das dietas experimentais sobre o pH e concentração de amônia ruminal. Foi observado aumento nas concentrações totais de ácidos graxos de cadeia curta e do ácido propiônico nos animais tratados com a dieta controle quando comparados aos animais alimentados com as dietas com inclusão de ureia, mas não foi observada alteração na relação acetato:propionato e na proporção molar dos ácidos graxos de cadeia curta. Também não foi observada diferença na síntese e na eficiência de síntese de proteína microbiana. Não houve diferença para o consumo de compostos nitrogenados totais, e nas excreções de compostos nitrogenados na urina, no balanço de nitrogênio e na eficiência de utilização do nitrogênio. Foi observado aumento na excreção de compostos nitrogenados no leite e nas fezes nos animais tratados com a ração controle quando comparados aos animais tratados com as dietas com ureia. Também foi observado aumento na produção de leite, e na produção de gordura e lactose nos animais tratados com a dieta controle quando comparados aos animais tratados com as dietas contendo ureia. Não houve diferença para as concentrações sanguíneas de glicose, ureia, e nitrogênio ureico. A utilização de ureia na alimentação de vacas em lactação, apesar de ter reduzido a produção de leite, não influenciou a produção de leite corrigida para 3,5% de gordura, e a sua composição. Nas condições em que os animais foram avaliados neste estudo não foi observada diferença no desempenho e metabolismo entre as vacas suplementadas com ureia, seja encapsulada ou não. / The aim was to evaluate the use of polymer-coated slow release urea (PCU) in rations for lactating cows by evaluating its effects on consumption and nutrient digestibility, ruminal fermentation, rumen microbial yield, production and milk composition, and concentrations of blood parameters. To perform this experiment were used 16 Holstein cows with average production of 30.0 kg/day, divided into four 4x4 balanced and contemporary latin squares, receiving the experimental diets: 1) Control (CT) diet without the addition of urea, 2) Feedgrade Urea (FGU), with the use of PCU 1.0% in the diet based on dry matter (DM), 3) PCU 1, with the use of PCU1 1.0% of the diet, based on DM, and 4) PCU 2 , with the use of 1.0% PCU2 in the diet, based on DM. The forage used was corn silage in a ratio of 50:50 (forage:concentrate ratio). Milk production (MP) and dry matter intake (DMI) were measured daily throughout the experimental period. The samples used to analyze the composition of milk were collected on the 16th day of each experimental period, and from the two daily milkings. Blood samples were collected in tubes vacuolated by vein puncture and/or coccygeal artery. The rumen fluid samples were collected with the use of esophageal probe three hours after the morning feeding. The digestibility was determined by means of the internal marker indigestible acid detergent fiber. There was no difference for DMI, organic matter, crude protein, ether extract, neutral detergent fiber and total digestible nutrients. There was a increase in the digestibility of crude protein and total digestible nutrients in animals treated with urea diets compared to animals fed the control diet. There was no effect on pH and ruminal ammonia. An increase in concentrations of total short-chain fatty acid and propionic acid was observed in animals treated with the control diet compared to animals fed diets with inclusion of urea. There was no change in acetate: propionate ratio and the molar ratio of short-chain fatty acids. There was no difference in the synthesis and efficiency of synthesis of microbial proteins. There was no difference in consumption of total nitrogen compounds, and nitrogen compounds excretion in urine, nitrogen balance and nitrogen use efficiency. There was an increase in the excretion of nitrogenous compounds in milk and feces in animals treated with the control diet compared to animals treated with urea rations. Was observed an increase in milk production and total fat and lactose production in animals treated with the control diets compared to animals treated with urea rations. There was no difference in blood concentrations of glucose, urea and urea nitrogen. The use of urea in the feeding of dairy cows, despite the lower milk production, did not influenced fat corrected milk yield (3,5%) and its composition. Under conditions in which animals were evaluated in this study there was no difference in performance and metabolism between cows supplemented with urea, polymer-coated slow release or not.

O presente estudo foi desenvolvido à partir de dois experimentos. No primeiro objetivou-se foi avaliar a utilização de uréia encapsulada de liberação lenta em dietas de novilhos Nelore canulados no rúmen e seus efeitos sobre o consumo e digestibilidade dos nutrientes, fermentação e produção microbiana ruminal, balanço de nitrogênio, e as concentrações de parâmetros sangüíneos. Foram utilizados 8 novilhos canulados da raça Nelore, mantidos em regime de confinamento, alocados em baias individuais cobertas, tipo tie stall. Os animais foram distribuídos aleatoriamente em 2 quadrados latinos 4 x 4 balanceados e contemporâneos, para receber as seguintes rações experimentais: 1) Controle (C), composta por ração sem a inclusão de uréia; 2) Uréia pecuária (Reforce N) (U), com a utilização de 2,0% de uréia pecuária na ração, baseada na matéria seca; 3) Uréia encapsulada 1 (UE-1), a utilização de 2,0% de uréia encapsulada com o polímero 1 na ração, baseada na matéria seca; e 4) Uréia encapsulada 2 (UE-2), com a utilização de 2,0% de uréia encapsulada com o polímero 2 na ração, baseada na matéria seca. O volumoso foi a silagem de milho, sendo a proporção volumoso: concentrado da dieta de 50:50. Foi observado maior consumo de MS, MO, PB, EE, CNF, FDN, FDN e consumo de MS em relação a %PV nos animais controle em relação aos alimentados com uréia. Foi observado menor digestibilidade da PB nos animais controle em relação aos alimentados com uréia. Maiores concentrações de N-NH3 ruminal foram observadas nos animais alimentados com uréia comum em relação aos alimentados com uréia encapsulada e maiores concentrações de propionato foram encontradas nos animais alimentados com uréia encapsulada em relação aos com uréia comum. Foi observado maior consumo de energia bruta, energia digestível, energia líquida, produção de energia líquida de ganho e eficiência energia líquida de produção nos animais submetidos a dieta controle em relação aos alimentados com uréia. Também foi observado maior consumo de nitrogênio (N) (g/dia) nos animais controle em relação aos com uréia, ainda maior quantidade de N e %N total nas fezes nos animais controle em relação aos alimentados com uréia e maior quantidade de N e %N urinário nos animais alimentados com uréia comum em relação aos com uréia encapsulada. Observou-se maiores concentrações de colesterol sérico nos animais controle em relação aos com uréia e maiores concentrações de uréia e N-ureico séricos nos animais alimentados com uréia em relação aos com uréia encapsulada. A utilização de uréia encapsulada alterou positivamente a fermentação ruminal, porém níveis de inclusão de 2% diminui o consumo dos animais. No segundo experimento, objetivou-se avaliar a utilização de uréia encapsulada de liberação lenta em dietas de novilhos Nelore em confinamento e seus efeitos sobre o desempenho animal, qualidade de carcaça e parâmetros sanguíneos. Foram utilizados 84 animais novilhos inteiros, da raça Nelore, com idade aproximada de 18 meses e peso vivo inicial médio de 350 kg. Os animais foram confinados por um período de 84 dias, precedido de um período de adaptação, de 7 dias para receber as seguintes rações experimentais: 1) Controle (C), composta por ração sem a inclusão de uréia; 2) Uréia pecuária (Reforce N) (U-1), com a utilização de 1,0% de uréia pecuária na ração, baseada na matéria seca; 3) Uréia pecuária (Reforce N) (U-2), com a utilização de 2,0% de uréia pecuária na ração, baseada na matéria seca; 4) Uréia encapsulada 1 (UE1-1), a utilização de 1,0% de uréia encapsulada com o polímero 1 na ração, baseada na matéria seca; 5) Uréia encapsulada 1 (UE1-2), a utilização de 2,0% de uréia encapsulada com o polímero 1 na ração, baseada na matéria seca; e 6) Uréia encapsulada 2 (UE2-1), com a utilização de 1,0% de uréia encapsulada com o polímero 2 na ração, baseada na matéria seca; e 7) Uréia encapsulada 2 (UE2-2), com a utilização de 2,0% de uréia encapsulada com o polímero 2 na ração, baseada na matéria seca. O volumoso utilizado foi a silagem de milho, sendo a proporção volumoso: concentrado da dieta de 50:50. As amostras de sangue foram coletadas no 28º, 56º e 84º dias, junto com a pesagem dos animais. Após 84 dias de experimento os animais foram abatidos, foi avaliado, área de olho de lombo (AOL cm2) e espessura de gordura subcutânea (EGS mm) do músculo Longissimus. Foi observado maior ganho de peso (kg/dia) e peso final (kg) nos animais alimentados com a dieta controle em relação aos alimentados com uréia e também maior ganho de peso nos animais alimentados com a dieta controle em relação aos alimentados com dietas contendo 2% de uréia. Também foi observado maior ganho de peso nos animais alimentados com dietas contendo 1% de uréia em relação aos alimentados com dietas contendo 2% de uréia. Observou-se menores concentrações de glicose sérica (mg/dl) e AST (UI/L) nos animais alimentados com uréia pecuária em relação aos alimentados com uréia encapsulada. Maiores concentrações (mg/dl) de uréia e nitrogênio ureico sérico foram observados nos animais alimentados com dietas contendo 2% de uréia em relação aos com 1% de uréia. A utilização de uréia encapsulada, independente dos níveis de inclusão na dieta, não influenciou na qualidade da carcaça dos animais. Quando utilizada com inclusão de 2% na dieta, influenciou negativamente o desempenho dos animais. / The present study was developed from two experiments. At first the aim was to evaluate the use of polymer-coatedslow release urea in rations of Nelore bulls with ruminal cannulas and its effect on consumption and nutrient digestibility, rumen fermentation and microbial production, nitrogen balance, and blood parameters concentrations. Eight Nelore bulls with ruminal cannulas, kept in individual tie stalls, were assigned to two 4 x 4 contemporary Latin squares balanced to receive the following experimental diets: 1) Control (C), consisting of diet without the addition of urea, 2) Feed-grade Urea (FGU) with 2,0% urea in ration, based on dry matter (DM), 3) Polymer-coated urea1 (PCU-1), with 2.0% PCU1 in the ration, based on DM, and 4) Polymer-coated urea 2 (PCU-2) with 2.0% PCU2 in the ration based on DM. The forage source was corn silage, and the proportion forage:concentrate diet was 50:50. There was higher dry matter intake (DMI), original matter intake (OMI), crude protein (PB), ether extract (EE), non-fiber carbohydrates (NFC) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) in relation to percentage of body weight (BW%) in control animals compared with those fed urea. Lower digestibility of CP was observed in control animals compared with those fed urea. Higher concentrations of ruminal NH3-N were found in animals fed urea compared to those fed PCU and higher concentrations of propionate were found in animals fed PCU compared to those fed FGU. There was a higher consumption of gross energy, digestible energy, net energy, net energy production and efficiency gains net energy production in animals receiving control diet than those fed urea. There was a greater consumption of nitrogen (N) (g/day) in animals receiving control diet compared to urea fed groups, even greater amount of N and total % N in feces in control animals than urea fed groups and higher N and % urinary Nin ureafed animals compared to those fed PCU. Higher concentrations were observed in serum cholesterol in the control group compared urea fed groups and higher concentrations of urea and serum urea-N in FGU group compared to PCU group. The use of PCU positively affected ruminal fermentation, however inclusion levels of 2% decreases the intake of animals. In the second experiment, to evaluate the use of PCU in diets of bull calves in confinement and its effect on intake, animal performance, carcass quality and blood parameters. Animals were used 84 whole steers, Nellore, aged approximately 18 months and initial weight of 350 kg. The animals were confined for a period of 84 days, preceded by an adaptation period of 7 days to receive the following experimental diets: 1) Control (C), consisting of diet without the addition of urea, 2) 1FGU-1, with 1.0% urea in ration based on DM, 3) 2FGU-1, with 2.0% urea in ration, based on DM, 4) 1PCU-1, with 1.0% PCU1in ration, based on DM, 5) 2PCU-1 with 2.0% PCU1in ration, based on DM and 6) 1PCU-2, with 1.0% PCU2 in ration, based on DM, and 7) 2PCU-2, with2.0% PCU2 in ration, based on DM. The forage source was corn silage, and the proportion forage: concentrate diet was 50:50. Blood samples were collected at the 28th, 56th and 84th days with the weighing of the animals. After the 84thof the experiment the animals were slaughtered, was evaluated rib eye area (REA square centimeters) and subcutaneous fat thickness (SFT mm) of the Longissimus muscle. There was more weight gain (kg/day) and final weight (kg) in animals fed the control diet than those fed urea and these parameters were also higher in animals fed the control diet than those fed diets containing 2 % urea and was even higher higher in animals fed diets containing 1% urea than those fed diets containing 2% urea. It was observed lower concentrations of serum glucose (mg/dl) and AST (IU L) in animals fed FGU than those fed PCU. Also, higher concentrations (mg/dl) of urea and serum urea nitrogen levels were observed in animals fed diets containing 2% urea compared to those with 1% urea in rations. The use of PCU, regardless the levels in diet did not influenced the carcass quality When used with inclusion of 2% in the ration, had a negative effect on animal performance.

Objetivou-se avaliar a utilização de ureia encapsulada de liberação Lenta nas dietas de vacas em lactação e seus efeitos sobre o consumo e digestibilidade aparente total da matéria seca e dos nutrientes, fermentação ruminal, produção microbiana ruminal, produção e composição do leite, e as concentrações de parâmetros sangüíneos. Foram utilizadas 16 vacas da raça Holandesa com produção média de 30,0 kg/dia, agrupadas em 4 quadrados latinos 4x4 balanceados e contemporâneos, recebendo as dietas experimentais: 1) Controle (CT), ração sem a inclusão de ureia; 2) Ureia pecuária (UP), com a utilização de 1,0% de UP na ração, baseada na matéria seca (MS); 3) Ureia encapsulada 1 (UE1), com a utilização de 1,0% de UE1 na ração, baseada na MS; e 4) Ureia encapsulada 2 (UE2), com a utilização de 1,0% de UE2 na ração, baseada na MS. O volumoso utilizado foi a silagem de milho, em relação de 50:50 (relação volumoso:concentrado). A produção de leite e o consumo de matéria seca foram mensurados diariamente durante todo o período experimental. As amostras utilizadas para análise da composição do leite foram coletadas no 16º dia de cada período experimental, sendo provenientes das duas ordenhas diárias. As amostras de sangue foram coletadas em tubos vacuolizados por punção da veia e/ou artéria coccígea. As amostras de líquido ruminal foram coletadas com a utilização de sonda esofágica três horas após a alimentação matinal. A digestibilidade foi determinada por meio de indicador interno FDAi. Não houve diferença para consumo de matéria seca, matéria orgânica, proteína bruta, extrato etéreo, fibra em detergente neutro e nutrientes digestíveis totais. Foi observado aumento na digestibilidade da proteína bruta e nos nutrientes digestíveis totais observados nos animais submetidos às dietas contendo ureia quando comparados aos animais alimentados com a dieta controle. Não houve efeito das dietas experimentais sobre o pH e concentração de amônia ruminal. Foi observado aumento nas concentrações totais de ácidos graxos de cadeia curta e do ácido propiônico nos animais tratados com a dieta controle quando comparados aos animais alimentados com as dietas com inclusão de ureia, mas não foi observada alteração na relação acetato:propionato e na proporção molar dos ácidos graxos de cadeia curta. Também não foi observada diferença na síntese e na eficiência de síntese de proteína microbiana. Não houve diferença para o consumo de compostos nitrogenados totais, e nas excreções de compostos nitrogenados na urina, no balanço de nitrogênio e na eficiência de utilização do nitrogênio. Foi observado aumento na excreção de compostos nitrogenados no leite e nas fezes nos animais tratados com a ração controle quando comparados aos animais tratados com as dietas com ureia. Também foi observado aumento na produção de leite, e na produção de gordura e lactose nos animais tratados com a dieta controle quando comparados aos animais tratados com as dietas contendo ureia. Não houve diferença para as concentrações sanguíneas de glicose, ureia, e nitrogênio ureico. A utilização de ureia na alimentação de vacas em lactação, apesar de ter reduzido a produção de leite, não influenciou a produção de leite corrigida para 3,5% de gordura, e a sua composição. Nas condições em que os animais foram avaliados neste estudo não foi observada diferença no desempenho e metabolismo entre as vacas suplementadas com ureia, seja encapsulada ou não. / The aim was to evaluate the use of polymer-coated slow release urea (PCU) in rations for lactating cows by evaluating its effects on consumption and nutrient digestibility, ruminal fermentation, rumen microbial yield, production and milk composition, and concentrations of blood parameters. To perform this experiment were used 16 Holstein cows with average production of 30.0 kg/day, divided into four 4x4 balanced and contemporary latin squares, receiving the experimental diets: 1) Control (CT) diet without the addition of urea, 2) Feedgrade Urea (FGU), with the use of PCU 1.0% in the diet based on dry matter (DM), 3) PCU 1, with the use of PCU1 1.0% of the diet, based on DM, and 4) PCU 2 , with the use of 1.0% PCU2 in the diet, based on DM. The forage used was corn silage in a ratio of 50:50 (forage:concentrate ratio). Milk production (MP) and dry matter intake (DMI) were measured daily throughout the experimental period. The samples used to analyze the composition of milk were collected on the 16th day of each experimental period, and from the two daily milkings. Blood samples were collected in tubes vacuolated by vein puncture and/or coccygeal artery. The rumen fluid samples were collected with the use of esophageal probe three hours after the morning feeding. The digestibility was determined by means of the internal marker indigestible acid detergent fiber. There was no difference for DMI, organic matter, crude protein, ether extract, neutral detergent fiber and total digestible nutrients. There was a increase in the digestibility of crude protein and total digestible nutrients in animals treated with urea diets compared to animals fed the control diet. There was no effect on pH and ruminal ammonia. An increase in concentrations of total short-chain fatty acid and propionic acid was observed in animals treated with the control diet compared to animals fed diets with inclusion of urea. There was no change in acetate: propionate ratio and the molar ratio of short-chain fatty acids. There was no difference in the synthesis and efficiency of synthesis of microbial proteins. There was no difference in consumption of total nitrogen compounds, and nitrogen compounds excretion in urine, nitrogen balance and nitrogen use efficiency. There was an increase in the excretion of nitrogenous compounds in milk and feces in animals treated with the control diet compared to animals treated with urea rations. Was observed an increase in milk production and total fat and lactose production in animals treated with the control diets compared to animals treated with urea rations. There was no difference in blood concentrations of glucose, urea and urea nitrogen. The use of urea in the feeding of dairy cows, despite the lower milk production, did not influenced fat corrected milk yield (3,5%) and its composition. Under conditions in which animals were evaluated in this study there was no difference in performance and metabolism between cows supplemented with urea, polymer-coated slow release or not.

This thesis presents two interrelated studies that consider nutrient management and seasonal changes in recharge on agricultural lands within the context of source water protection. The research focuses first on the management of the risk to groundwater quality through the implementation of various nutrient management practices and secondly considers the dynamic nature of the transport pathway to the groundwater system associated with seasonal changes in climate and hydrology. The combined results provide insight into several of the key factors influencing the protection of groundwater sources within the agricultural landscape. Field work was completed between 2009 and 2010 on an agricultural field near the City of Woodstock, Ontario. The site is located within a source water protection area; the two-year travel time zone of the Thornton Well Field which represents the primary water supply for the City of Woodstock and which has experienced chronic increases in nitrate concentrations over the last few decades. The wells are completed in glacial overburden consisting of intermingling sand and gravel till aquifers which overly a limestone bedrock aquifer. Agricultural best or beneficial management practices (BMPs) field have been implemented and monitored since 2004. The BMPs were adopted in order to reduce nitrogen losses to the aquifer, and consisted of a reduction in nitrogen fertilizer application rates over a series of agricultural fields located near the well The first study is a one year experiment designed to compare alternative nutrient management practices for corn. Combinations of fertilizer treatments with or without a legume cover crop (red clover) were assessed. The fertilizer treatments studied were: a polymer coated urea (slow-release fertilizer) applied at planting, a conventional urea applied at planting, side-dress treatment of a solution of urea and ammonium nitrate in water containing 28% nitrogen with two different application rates applied in the early summer, and a control. The legume cover crop was incorporated in the soil in the previous fall, and acts as a slow release fertilizer as nitrogen is made available to the following crop as the plants decompose. Treatments were compared based on crop yield, overall economic return, and the potential for nitrate leaching. The potential for nitrate leaching was evaluated with bi-weekly shallow soil core during the growing season, and deep soil cores taken before planting, after harvest and the following spring. The deep cores allowed changes in nitrate storage below the rooting zone to be assessed. The results of this study highlight the importance of timing of fertilizer applications and rate of fertilizer applications. Treatments which provide a delay in the release or application of fertilizer, the polymer-coated urea, the calculator-rate side-dress and the clover cover crop, were found to be advantageous. The polymer-coated urea treatments and side-dress treatments were found to reduce leaching compared to the conventional urea treatment. Treatments with the clover cover crops were not found to reduce crop yields or increase leaching potential, and lower fertilizer costs associated to this practice were found to have a positive economic effect. Plots treated with the high-rate side-dress fertilizer application lost more nitrate to the subsurface compared to the other treatment options, and an economic disadvantage was observed as yields did not compensate for higher fertilizer costs. The study highlights the advantages of the different treatments under study, which may be used to inform policy makers and farmers in the selection of economically and environmentally sustainable nutrient management BMP options. Groundwater monitoring at the site over the years has indentified interesting recharge dynamics, particularly in the vicinity of an ephemeral stream which develops annually during spring and winter melt events in a low lying area of the study site. It was hypothesized that rapid recharge could occur beneath the stream allowing for surface water to quickly reach groundwater, posing a threat to municipal water wells. The current framework of source water protection does not take into account the potential risk posed by this type recharge event. At this field site, rapid infiltration associated with this type of event may pose a risk to drinking water quality due to the proximity of the stream to the pumping wells and the nature of the aquifer. The second study examines rapid groundwater recharge processes beneath the ephemeral stream during the course of a spring melt in 2010. The goals of the study were to quantify recharge at one location beneath the stream and to assess whether temperature variations above the water table can be used as a tracer to reasonably estimate recharge during a short live recharge event. A novel housing for the temperature sensors was designed in order to deploy and position them into gravelly materials within the vadose zone, which reduced the potential for the formation of preferential pathways and permitted the retrieval of the sensors at a later date. Field data were collected during the course of the spring melt period from a network of groundwater monitoring wells and subsurface temperature sensors. Spatial and temporal changes in groundwater geochemistry, hydraulic head and temperature were were used to characterize recharge dynamics at the field site. Recharge beneath a segment of the ephemeral stream was quantified through the numerical analysis of the field data using Hydrus 1-D, a one-dimensional numerical model designed to simulate soil water flow and heat transport in variably saturated porous media. Site specific data were used to create the model domain, provide estimates of physical parameters, and to define initial and time variable boundary conditions. Model parameters were first calibrated by simulating periods where it was expected that soils would be gravity drained with minimal soil water flow, and then further refined by simulating the period when the ephemeral stream was present. A final set of parameters was determined, and the initial gravity drained conditions were re-simulated. The model was able to reproduce field observations under different flow scenarios using the final set of parameters, suggesting that the conceptual model and final model domain representative of the actual field conditions. The successful simulation of the field data sets under the different flow scenarios also increases confidence in the uniqueness of the model results. The model estimated that 0.15 m of recharge occurred beneath the instrumented site during the period between March 9th and March 22nd of 2010 when the ephemeral stream was present. This represents approximately a third of the expected total annual recharge for this location. Regional changes in hydraulic head, groundwater temperature and groundwater chemistry provided additional insight into the dynamic nature of the recharge process during the spring meld period and further illustrated the spatial variability of the aquifers’ response to the stream. The study found that the use of temperature as a tracer provided useful and quantifiable insight into recharge phenomena. The results of this study suggest that high rates of rapid recharge occur beneath the ephemeral stream, and are spatially variable. This type of focused infiltration that occurs during the spring melt may represent a risk to municipal water quality if the infiltrating waters are carrying contaminants.