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This thesis seeks to contribute to two areas of historical enquiry: the history of women and the history of poverty, by investigating the strategies used by women to cope with poverty. It attempts this in a systematic way by applying a taxonomy of strategies to the case study area of West Oxfordshire from the mid-to-late nineteenth century. As such, it broadens our understanding of the lives of women living in a rural area as well as examining poverty from the perspective of the responses to it. Three main strategies were considered; employment, household management and community strategies. General results of the analysis suggest that the strategic approach is a valuable method of examining the way poor rural women coped with poverty, highlighting the interconnections between their roles of reproduction, production and consumption. Specific results suggest that first, a radical rethink of the role and importance of the home as a female power base is required. Second, although strategies are difficult to quantify, certain strategies appear to have been more popular than others; household management emerged as the pivotal strategy to make ends meet. Careful spending and saving and the ability to utilise a variety of resouces such as animal husbandry and gardens and allotments was necessary in the fight against poverty. Employment, although of value, could not always be relied upon to provide a steady, regular income. Community strategies were of some value. They were provided informally by kin and the neighbourhood and formally by charities and poor relief. Third, certain factors were influential concerning the nature of strategies; namely duration of need, age and marital status, geographical location, seasonality and conditions for eligibility. The organic nature of the taxonomy means that it can be expanded to include additional strategies and used to study other groups of women such as the middle-class, different historical periods and geographical locations.

MSc (Med), Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand / Introduction: Tuberculosis (TB) persists as a serious global public heath problem of a magnitude requiring urgent attention. The increase in new cases of TB in African countries where the prevalence of HIV is relatively low has been associated with other host and environmental factors. There is little or no comparable data on the association between host and environmental related factors and TB incidence in low HIV prevalence regions of South Africa. Objectives: This study aims to investigate host and environmental factors associated with incident TB in one region of South Africa. Methods: 3493 TB-free participants were recruited, and baseline data collected at the beginning of 2003 in the Lung Health Study in Ravensmead and Uitsig, Cape Town, South Africa. The TB register was used to identify new cases among the 3493 participants between 2003 and 2007. Results: Of the 3493 study participants, 109 developed TB; i.e. 57 males and 52 females. The incidence of TB in the Ravensmead and Uitsig study population was 632 per 100 000. Cohabiting, OR= 2.09 (95% CI= 1.05 - 4.17), smoking, OR= 2.19 (95% CI= 1.48 - 4.14), and history of imprisonment OR= 1.88 (95% CI= 1.09 - 3.23) were all statistically associated with TB incidence in multiple logistic regression models. The summary population attributable fraction for these three factors was 53.2%. Conclusions: TB incidence was high in this community. Cigarette smoking was one of the most important predictors of TB incidence, and the proportion of smokers in this population was relatively high. TB control and prevention strategies need to focus on interventions which will reduce or limit the impact of TB risk factors.

Thesis advisor: James Bernauer / 1. This dissertation explores the apparently known object of our thought that is called poverty. To do so, it attempts an analysis that begins by noting that poverty has a past, which is not history, and constitutes destitution in specific ways. More precisely, my dissertation consists of fathoming what poverty might be by identifying those elements that, at a specific moment in our history, articulated the emergence of a problematization that continues to make its presence felt today. My goal is to pinpoint and describe those specific elements that have become conditions of possibility for a problematization of poverty which, although historically contingent, has shaped our way of thinking upon and acting against poverty. In order to carry out such a task, I have used specific conceptual tools inherited from the philosophy of Michel Foucault. 2. This dissertation contends that when the police of the poor began to be established in the second half of the Spanish and American eighteenth century the emergence of a new problematization of poverty began to crystallize. This problematization implied a discontinuity regarding the knowledge encompassed in the doctrine of charity, which nevertheless bequeathed to it some essential parts. The emergence of a police problematization supposed the emergence of governmental knowledge and the slow fading away of the problematization organized around charity. Curiously, this problematization will be constituted both in opposition to and also in articulation with the Christian doctrine of charity. 3. Chapter two of this dissertation will be devoted to the doctrine of charity as it existed at the beginning of the Spanish eighteenth century. The chapter does not affirm that such Spanish-American variations of charity were particularly novel. Yet it is important to trace its forgotten truth and organize, albeit briefly, its governmental knowledge. In doing so, it will be possible for us to not only understand better the problematization of poverty that charity generated at the beginning of the eighteenth century in both Spain and América, but also the subsequent appropriation of charity by the enlightened science of the police. At the beginning of the eighteenth century in Spain and América, Catholic charity was a regime of truth whose validity concerning poverty had no serious rivals in either the Iberian Peninsula or on American soil. Charitable governmentality articulated a problematization of poverty revolving around the threat to physical life caused by material needs, the suffering provoked by pain, the hate that inclined towards revenge, and the correction of one who has fallen into sin. A distinctive type of government will be needed to tackle each one of these issues. Thus, the regime of truth of charity will be articulated by a government of material needs and the excess of goods through the exercise of almsgiving, a government of pain through the exercise of tribulation, a government of hate through the exercise of loving your enemy, and a government of correction through the exercise of fraternal correction. Almsgiving was the charitable way of governing how to deal with material needs and excess and was organized around the precept of not killing one’s neighbor. However, almsgiving was not just a precept. Its purpose was to make the subject become entirely Christian by giving life to his faith. Thus, the giver became a charitable steward who united himself with God, with the neighbor and with himself in the act of giving. Alms initially forged this threefold unification. Charity was thus a vital regime of truth which carried on its shoulders the truth of the believer, the life of the community, and the divine government of the world. 4. In the middle of the century identified with the Enlightenment, the age-old concern about poverty found a new moment of inquietude both in Spain and in Spanish America. Within the limits marked by the thought contained in Bernardo Ward’s Obra Pía (Pious Work) (1750) and the laws on the police of the poor that established the Diputaciones de Caridad (Charity Councils) (1778), destitution emerged as a State affair that the science of the police was in charge of solving. Chapter three is devoted to the forgotten science called the science of the police. The science of the police during the Enlightenment was a body of knowledge about how to know and govern the interior of the State, including the vassals. Like all of the arts of governing, the science of the police was teleological, and happiness was its end goal. The mandate of the science of the police was to increase the forces of the interior of the State, and to do so it must first identify those forces and learn about them in order to eventually multiply them. Such identification not only refers to which of the activities were to be preferred, but also concerns the objects from which riches are gained—namely, land, merchandise, and vassals. Among these three elements, the vassals stand out as the police's privileged object of the science of the police. The wealth—and therefore the international position of the State—depends, finally, on the vassals being productive forces. Thereby a permanent attempt to conserve and increase not only the number but also the usefulness of those subjects was made in order to strengthen the State. These attempts to conserve and augment the members of the State will be part of a thesis that we could call populationist. Poverty constituted an extraordinary threat for the science of the police because destitution undermined those factors that are considered necessary to make the population grow. Significantly, the poverty considered by the science of the police poses an urgency that is not exactly the same as that conceived by charity. Destitution was a problem of the conservation of the vassals and cast the State as the giver who must address this problem. Thus, the poverty characterized by the science of the police was seen primarily as a problem for the sovereign. Destitution, and with it also the poor, become an affair of the Enlightenment State. 5. After analyzing the science of the police, we might be inclined to explain the deployment of the police of the poor as a consequence of the science of the police that left behind—finally!—the charitable alethurgy used to comprehend the poor. However, charity was called again at the moment when the police writers and statesmen began to fashion a new way to think about and govern the needy—namely, once they had to shape and deploy one specific police for the poor. Chapter four will explore the peculiar relationship of these two dissimilar bodies of knowledge in the Enlightenment device called the police of the poor. The police problematization of poverty was modeled on some charitable questions, namely: Who are the faces of poverty? Should we give to them? What ought we to give? These questions will be an opening to think about poverty in the Enlightenment. To govern the poor in the truth, nevertheless, the police of the poor will answer these questions by accepting the police’s imperative to produce and circulate wealth in order to constitute a happy State. Despite the diversity of deficiencies of the poor, the vicious idleness that defines or surrounds the poor's material needs is the most pressing urgency for the police of the poor. The perils of idleness made it imperative to lead the poor towards active productivity. Thus, the police poor was constituted by the duality represented by material necessity on the one hand and inactivity—whether viciously voluntary or dangerously forced—on the other. The sovereign is on his way to becoming a king not only of justice and peace, but also of charity that assumes, as the central element of his sovereign figure, that the king should love the poor with the love of a father. Thus, the pious king who gives police alms begins to assume and to incorporate the duty of giving alms as a function of the State. The police of the poor found in alms a method of support. Almsgiving provided a well-known and mandatory way through which each vassal could contribute to sustain the poor of the State. In fact, the obligatory nature of alms seems to have made the idea of taxes that would support this public policy unnecessary. Also, almsgiving referred to a long and well-established truth: that in the act of giving you can spiritually transform the recipient. The police alms accept—with an easiness that never ceases to astonish—the possibility of delivering spiritual alms to the poor within the State under the sovereign's auspices. Even more surprising is that one of the primary ambitions of charitable giving is also a pillar in this police re-elaboration of alms—namely, the constitution of a subject through the act of giving. 6. The difficult position of charity since the middle of the eighteenth century—that is, the dispute that this dissertation will explore concerning some of its elements—puts us on the path of what Foucault called a "reflexive moment" (Foucault, OS, 242). This is a point in which the thinkers of the Enlightenment began to reflect on the truth from which they had to understand and govern poverty. The enlightened vassals lost the familiarity they used to have concerning a charitable way of governing the material necessity of the political association; they subjected charity to criticism; and, finally, they elaborated a governmental truth, which I have called police-charity truth, to govern the poor of the State in order to alleviate destitution. The police of the poor is the expression of this moment—or maybe its articulation. With the police of the poor, the enlightened subjects intervened in the politics of their time, generating—almost paradoxically—a transformation of charity and its continuity. Such an intervention was neither announced in the charitable alethurgy nor prefigured in the science of the police. It was instead an invention that articulated some of the concepts present in both bodies of knowledge, and in doing so crystallized a truth about poverty and the poor, as well as establishing a way of governing the needy towards happiness. The Enlightenment governmental knowledge on poverty was forged at its intersection with religious charity. Such a realization puts us on the path to a conclusion by Foucault, to which James Bernauer s.j. was one of the first people to call our attention. Namely, that western modernity, instead of being characterized by its dechristianization, is sometimes modeled by processes of "Christianization-in-depth." / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2018. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Philosophy.

Thesis advisor: O. Ernesto Valiente / Thesis advisor: Margaret E. Guider / Thesis (STL) — Boston College, 2016. / Submitted to: Boston College. School of Theology and Ministry. / Discipline: Sacred Theology.

La pobreza urbana es uno de los factores de la ciudad de Buenos Aires más complejos para estudiar. A menudo desestimada meramente como epifenómeno del desarrollo desigual del capitalismo, la pobreza urbana ha jugado, por el contrario, un rol clave en la conformación tanto del paisaje físico como del discurso cultural argentino a lo largo del siglo XX. La definición de la pobreza es quizás el principal problema para quien se enfrenta a su estudio. Existen, por un lado, aproximaciones desde la sociología, la economía y la teoría política. Pero, por otro, también hay una percepción cultural, influenciada por prejuicios, estereotipos, figuras y sentidos. Como imagen y relato, la pobreza tiene mucho peso en moldear nuestra comprensión de la ciudad. Esto es especialmente fuerte en el caso de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. Visiones de Buenos Aires encara esta cuestión, centrándose en las maneras en que los estratos más bajos de las clases populares —cirujas, inmigrantes, villeros y cartoneros— han sido integrados en diferentes prácticas artísticas, desde la literatura hasta el cine, la fotografía y las artes plásticas. Al analizar de cerca varias fuentes primarias, esta tesis examina las imágenes de la pobreza como un elemento de la ciudad en que se descubren las tensiones que afianzan la modernización urbana. Aunque numerosos estudios críticos sobre las ciudades latinoamericanas han reconocido la importancia del planeamiento urbano para analizar la historia cultural, esta investigación contribuye a esta discusión al volver a imaginar el peso cultural de la pobreza para comprender el imaginario de Buenos Aires y su desarrollo. Visiones de Buenos Aires cuestiona las interpretaciones generalmente jerárquicas del planeamiento urbano, señalando, en línea con los trabajos de Henri Lefebvre, Paola Berenstein Jacques y Nestor García Canclini, la necesidad de confrontar los planes oficiales de transformación urbana con las formas en que la cultura y el arte recogieron la presencia de la pobreza en la ciudad. Esta tesis examina la historia de la Buenos Aires del siglo XX a través de la descripción detallada de cuatro momentos fundamentales de su construcción material. En el primer capítulo describo la representación de los conventillos y el asentamiento informal del Barrio de las Ranas en los diarios de viaje de Enrique Gómez Carrillo y Jules Huret y en las fotografías de Harry Olds. Al considerar este corpus en el contexto del modelo que el Estado proyecta para la Buenos Aires asociada con el Centenario de 1910, demuestro cómo la representación de la pobreza y el planeamiento urbano estaban relacionados: ambos conformaron una manera particular de ver la ciudad como una escenografía. En el siguiente capítulo examino los modos en que el pueblo aparece en el cine de los años cincuenta. En específico contrasto estos retratos cinematográficos con el modelo urbano peronista dirigido a rediseñar Buenos Aires como ciudad obrera. Aquí planteo que la interpretación cultural de la pobreza y el planeamiento estatal colaboraron en crear una visión mítica de la ciudad. En el tercer capítulo me concentro en los años sesenta para analizar cómo los planes estatales para erradicar la pobreza constituyeron las premisas para fomentar el interés de la cultura en las villas miseria. Artistas distintos como Fernando Birri, Antonio Berni y Bernardo Verbitsky se preocuparon por construir una imagen de estos espacios de pobreza como territorios llenos de vida y objetos frente a la política estatal de vaciamiento. Esta narración termina con el modelo de la ciudad neoliberal que se produce en el enfrentamiento entre los planes de remodelación de Puerto Madero, los proyectos de urbanización de algunas villas miseria y la simultánea comodificación del pobre en la explosión de productos culturales que lo retratan. Al trazar las formas diferentes en que las clases bajas entraron, a través de las representaciones culturales, al imaginario urbano, esta tesis examina la historia, todavía no contada, del rol cambiante que la pobreza y las villas miseria ejercieron en las principales imágenes que se produjeron de la Buenos Aires del siglo XX.

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Thesis (M.A. Rel.)--School of Theology, Anderson University, 1988. / Abstract. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 167-171).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Chicago, Dept. of Sociology, June 2001. / Includes bibliographical references. Also available on the Internet.

Thesis (M.S.)--Ohio University, August, 2009. / Title from PDF t.p. Includes bibliographical references.