No description available.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Uppsala universitet, 2006. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.

No description available.

Dispersal is a fundamental ecological and evolutionary process that can create demographic and genetic linkage between neighbouring and distant locations, influencing the dynamics, structure and ultimately the persistence of populations. To understand observed population dynamics and structure and to predict future change, accurate and comprehensive data are required describing the pattern and magnitude of dispersal and gene flow across all relevant spatial scales. However, this is a major empirical challenge. In this thesis, I aimed to obtain comprehensive empirical data quantifying natal dispersal patterns and population genetic structure across multiple spatial scales using the European shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis) as a model species. I used a combination of field observations of shags individually ringed on the Isle of May, Scotland and molecular genetic techniques to accomplish these aims. By locating adult shags that had been ringed as chicks on the Isle of May at their breeding locations across eastern Scotland, I demonstrated divergent dispersal distributions at small versus large spatial scales. Using both mitochondrial DNA markers and a newly developed set of microsatellite markers, I quantified population genetic structure across a pan-European scale. This was weak across both molecular markers suggesting a role for occasional effective long-distance dispersal. However, a suite of evolutionary forces besides gene flow can create observed population genetic structure. Therefore, I quantified population genetic structure across populations in eastern Scotland, and quantitatively linked this indirect estimate of gene flow with my direct field observations of dispersal. Dispersal parameters derived explicitly from field observations and the spatial organisation of populations were shown to strongly influence observed population genetic structure. Overall, these data demonstrate the need to utilise both field observations and genetic methods to comprehensively estimate the extent and effectiveness of dispersal and highlight the importance of accurately quantifying long-distance dispersal in particular for predicting future change.

The terrestrial orchid Thelymitra matthewsii Cheeseman, uncommon in New Zealand, was studied to increase knowledge of the species life cycle, morphology and ecology. Results will enhance future conservation management for the species. New information related to the morphology of T. matthewsii was obtained. The species was found to emerge in one of four discrete life stages of distinctive morphology and height range that remained constant for the season, not developing into a more advanced life stage. The leaf of the three pre adult life stages designated a hook, a spiral, and a non flowering stage, did not inflate at the base, but rose smoothly from the tuber. Apparent morphological differences in the column between descriptions of the Australian taxon and the small New Zealand sample examined suggested further study was needed. Comprehensive monthly monitoring was carried out at five study sites in three locations in the Te Paki area of the Far North, from 2002 to 2004. No patterns emerged in plant life stage succession, flowering, and presence or absence at labels reinforcing the concept that variability was a common component of the population census. Seasonal and partial absence was a major component of the populations. An average of 32.8% of plants, over five study sites, were present throughout three seasons, while 66.9% were recorded as absent (not visible) at monitoring. New plants appearing in 2003 and 2004 showed a high percentage of subsequent absence (mean 85.7%). To determine population stability, recruitment and absence were compared. Plant absence exceeded recruitment by 7% (mean plant absence 30.5%; mean recruitment 23.4%). Plants continued to appear during the monitoring period, and labeled plants increased two-fold over commencement numbers. Adults recorded as 28% of labeled plants over three seasons, were out numbered by pre-flowering stages. Only 5% of population numbers exhibited succession from a smaller to a flowering plant. Life stage modeling indicated a life stage was more likely to be followed by the same stage than an expected successive stage. Thelymitra matthewsii was found to be present in four substrates in the Far North. The survey of vegetation found the indigenous species Kunzea ericoides and the exotic Hakea gibbosa dominant for both height, and cover. Litter and bare ground dominated ground cover. Differences in vegetation and ground cover, of sites supporting T. matthewsii and comparison sites that did not, were minor and suggested that another factor, for example a suitable fungal partner, influenced the species presence or absence. The results of the study indicated the present threat classification of Thelymitra matthewsii is inadequate in the light of the species relatively circumscribed, widely separated habitats, the small number of reproducing individuals and vulnerability to habitat modification.

Wendan Citrus grandis was introduced from FuJian province to Taiwan in 1701 (Kanghsi 40 years, Ching dynasty), and wide planted around Madou county, Tainan since. In recent years, it was found that Wendan was easily infected and damaged by long-horn beetle Philus antennatus, which caused damage even worse than another destructive insect, white-spotted Long-horned beetle Anoplophoa malasiaca. From May 2003 to May 2009, I investigated the reproduction, development and population dynamics of the beetle in a shaddock orchard in Madou, and conducted experiments on its behavior. The results showed that wrinkled triple like T character in the front chest and pronotum is one of the characteristics of Philus antennatus larva. The adults were nocturnal and often came out of the excavation in the night to copulate. After copulation, female would lay eggs in a small crack. After hatched, the larvae drilled into soil and dwelled in the host plant, eating wendan¡¦s fibrous roots, the phloem of the major roots, etc. Tender fibrous roots of shaddock¡¦s trunk were severely damaged by the larvae, resulting in host plants not able to transport water and nutrients to the leaves, which would dry out and drop. Consequently, the host plants would gradually die. The life cycle of Philus antennatus lasted about one to two years. Four stages, egg, larva, pupa and adult were observed to complete metamorphosis. The adult¡¦s life is short. After eclosion, the adults hide in the soil and do not eat. They will come out of the excavation only for copulation, and then died about 5 days after copulation. Eclosion stage lasts about 30 days, starting in late May, and incubation of egg takes about 13 -18 days. The larva stage lasts 1-2 years. But with bad climate or unfavorable environment, ecdysis would extend, and larvae would not eclosion

The Orange-bellied Parrot is one of only two obligate migratory parrots in the world. The species is listed nationally as endangered and has been the subject of intensive study and conservation activities over the past 25 years. Reproductive and demographic data collected over this period from the wild population form the basis of this thesis. Remote breeding sites in southwestern Tasmania at Melaleuca and Birchs Inlet were used to study this species in the wild. Through deployment of up to 52 artificial nest boxes and observations of natural nests at Melaleuca it was possible to collect information on a range of reproductive success parameters over a long period, including 12 consecutive breeding seasons. In addition, the provision of up to 33 nest boxes over seven consecutive years at Birchs Inlet provided a comparison with the use of nest boxes by several competitors at Melaleuca. The use of colour-bands to identify 760 individuals from 16 different cohorts provided the means to assess a range of behavioural and demographic parameters of the species. This study confirmed the Orange-bellied Parrot has a regular migratory pattern with birds beginning to return to the breeding area on the 2nd October (plus or minus 5.1 days s.d) in each year. The first birds to return are those in their second year of life or older, while first-year adult birds begin to arrive 13 days later. The median arrival date for birds in their second year or older was the 23rd October compared with 9th November for firstyear adult birds. There was no difference between the sexes in arrival date. The mean date of last departure from Melaleuca was 5th April (plus or minus 11.1 days s.d). A total of 190 nests with known contents were studied in the wild and, of these 185 nests contained eggs and five nests contained no eggs. This study found the earliest laying date was on the 29th November and the latest was the 19th January with eggs (95%) laid during December (n = 101 eggs). Clutch size ranged from 2-6 eggs with over half of the clutches having 5 eggs and 95.3% of all clutches 4-6 eggs in size. The mean clutch size was 4.7 eggs per active nest across all years and there was no evidence the species can produce second clutches in the wild. The mean incubation period for Orange-bellied Parrot eggs was 21.4 plus or minus 0.8 days (n = 49 observed incubations). The mean dimensions of unhatched eggs was 22.9 plus or minus 0.98 mm by 18.5 plus or minus 0.67 mm (n = 99 eggs). The 185 nests with eggs studied by this work contained a total of 874 eggs. Of these 695 eggs hatched and 179 eggs failed to hatch. Of the 179 failures, 107 eggs (69.7%) were infertile, 48 eggs (26.8%) were fertile and 24 eggs (13.4%) were of unknown fertility. Of the 48 unhatched fertile eggs, 23 eggs (47.9%) were early-term failures, 15 eggs (31.2%) were mid-term failures and 10 eggs (20.8%) were late-term failures. The mean egg fertility rate for the species was calculated to be 85.6% (plus or minus 2.91 s.e). Hatching success from all eggs laid was 79.5% (i.e. 695 nestlings hatched from 874 eggs laid) with the mean hatching success across all years being 80.2%. A total of 89 nestlings died prior to fledging. Early stage deaths represented 44.9% (n = 40) of all mortalities and late stage deaths 55.1% (n = 49). The annual egg failure and nestling mortality varied across years. Of a total of 268 egg and nestling failures across all years, 66.8% (n = 179 eggs) were attributable to hatch failure and 33.2% (n = 89 nestlings) to mortality. Unhatched infertile eggs represented most (39.9%, n = 107) of all failures. Of the 190 nesting attempts, only 27 failed to produce any young. The most common cause of total nest failure was attributed to failure to hatch (44.4%, n = 12) followed by nestling deaths (37%, n = 10) and no eggs laid (18.5%, n = 5). Average brood size was 4.0 nestlings plus or minus 0.09 s.e (range = 1-6) from 173 nests with 65.9% of nests producing four (33.5%) or five (32.4%) nestlings. The majority of nests produced four fledglings with a mean fledgling brood size of 3.7 plus or minus 0.09 s.e (range = 1-6) from the 163 successful nests. Only 4.3% of successful nests produced the maximum of six fledglings. Of the 190 Orange-bellied Parrot nests studied, 85.8% (n = 163) produced fledglings. The distribution of nest productivity is presented and discussed in detail. The number of fledglings produced per breeding attempt varied between zero and six. A total of 69% of all nests produced 3-5 fledglings whereas 33% of all nests produced four fledglings. The fledging success for 12 consecutive breeding seasons was 87.2% (606 fledglings from 695 nestlings) and the mean fledging success across all years was 86.9% (plus or minus 2.47 s.e). The overall breeding success for the Orange-bellied Parrot was 69.3% (606 fledglings from 874 eggs laid). The overall reproductive output of the species was 3.3 fledglings per nest (606 fledglings from 185 nests) from an investment of 4.7 eggs laid. Egg fertility, nestling survival and fledgling survival of Orange-bellied Parrots in the wild is noticeably higher than for the captive population, and is equal to or exceeds many other Psittacidae. The reproductive success results reported here are comparable with the more common Turquoise Parrot Neophema pulchella of mainland Australia. Although the Orange-bellied Parrot has a healthy mean fecundity rate of 1.62 females/egg laying female, there was some variability between years, with a low of 0.87 females/egg laying female in 1998/99. The mean lifespan of the Orange-bellied Parrot was calculated to be 2.22 years (plus or minus 0.074 s.e, range = 0.37-11.70, N = 693) with no significant difference between male and females. Males lived on average for 2.75 years (plus or minus 0.127 s.e, range = 0.43-11.70, n = 240) and females lived on average for 2.67 years (plus or minus 0.141 s.e, range = 0.18-10.41, n = 189). The oldest male recorded was 11.70 years of age and the oldest female recorded was 10.41 years of age. This study was not able to compare the reproductive lifespan of wild Orange-bellied Parrots with captive-bred birds due to database problems or with other Psittacidae due to lack of comparable studies. The capacity to compare the wild population with captive-bred birds and other Psittacidae will greatly enhance our knowledge of the species. This work suggests the Orange-bellied Parrot does not have a strong fidelity to mates, nest site or nesting zone. This finding is contrary to previous assumptions made about the species. This study did not measure hollow availability; however, a comparison of the use of nest boxes between Birchs Inlet and Melaleuca indicates competition from introduced species may be limiting the breeding range and reproductive success. Survivorship rates of juveniles to first breeding (c. one year old), adults and both sexes were determined. Mean survivorship of juveniles over the study was 55% (plus or minus 3.2 s.e) and is within expected limits when compared to other Psittacidae. Mean survivorship of adults was 63.6% (plus or minus 2.0 s.e). There was a decreasing trend in survival rates across all cohorts from 1999 onward with average annual survival declining markedly thereafter. The reason for this decline is unclear. There was no difference in survival rate of each sex over the study. This study has significantly increased our understanding of the reproductive success and demography of the Orange-bellied Parrot. This information will reduce the level of uncertainty in the Population Viability Analysis model for the species and, in turn, increase the power of such models to assess the species status and test the effectiveness of conservation measures. Some of the results of this study have important implications for future research and conservation of the species. These are discussed, and include management of nest boxes, refinement of mark-recapture studies, population viability analysis and influence of introduced nest competitors.

I investigated life history traits and secondary production of populations of Goniobasis proxima in four streams from July 2005 to June 2006. Measurements of canopy cover, conductivity, alkalinity, temperature, and nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), as well as snail size, density, and occupied substrate were taken monthly for each stream. Snail growth rates were determined in an aquarium for 10 size classes and secondary production was estimated as the summed product of size class growth rates and field biomass measurements. Size class production estimates tracked biomass with intermediate to larger sized snails dominating production, despite smaller snails growing faster. Production estimates across streams ranged from 1,400 mg m-2 yr-1 to 22,183 mg m-2 yr-1 with noticeable summer highs and winter lows. Annual turnover was slow (0.43-0.49) owing to slow growth and long development time. Snails preferred leaves/wood as a substrate to occupy over rock and sand and showed no appreciable grazing effect on the epilithon community. / Master of Science

The U.S. healthcare system is a complex segment of our society that is constantly evolving with changes to various areas such as education, financing, safety, and health. There continues to be a critical examination of how healthcare professionals are trained and utilized as healthcare demands increase. One category of healthcare professionals that has evolved over time to address societal needs is pharmacists. Pharmacists have kept their traditional function of dispensing medications while expanding into multiple areas of expertise and training from patient counseling and drug therapy, to being part of multidisciplinary teams treating acute care patients. According to the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP) in 2009 there were approximately 265,000 licensed pharmacists in the U.S. (NABP, 2010). The Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) reported the settings with the largest number of positions are chain pharmacies (77,300), hospitals (49,200), and independent pharmacies (36,200) (DHHS, 2008). The ratio of pharmacists per 100,000 population is expected to increase from 68.9 pharmacists per 100,000 population to 76.7 per 100,000 between 1995 and 2020 (Gershon, Cultice, & Knapp, 2000). This increase in the pharmacist to population ratio is consistent with a growth rate of 13% during this time period of time. Until 1998, the supply of pharmacists in the U.S. appeared to be in reasonable balance with demand. Market forces gradually upset the delicate balance between the supply of pharmacists and the demand for their services between 1998 and 2009. In particular, a precipitous increase in the volume of prescription written and filled during this time period contributed to upsetting this delicate balance between the supply of pharmacists and demand (Cooksey, Walton, Stankewicz, & Knapp, 2003). Researchers have noted a number of environmental factors affecting the pharmacist supply in the U. S. This inquiry explores these factors within the context of the population ecology theoretical framework. In addition to the volume of prescriptions, additional environmental factors believed to have a discernible impact on the pharmacist supply include, the number of physicians, size of the business industry and insurance coverage. Previous studies on pharmacists supply have pointed to income, physician population, and population among other variables that predict the demand for pharmacists (Walton, Cooksey, Knapp, Quist, & Miller, 2004; Cherry, D.K., Woodwell, D.A., & Rechtsteiner 2007; Walton, Knapp, Miller, & Schumock 2007). U. S. physicians wrote over 4 billion prescriptions in 2007 (Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, 2008). Physicians are the primary healthcare providers that generate prescriptions to be filled. Consequently, the number of physicians is believed to be a significant environmental factor affecting the supply of pharmacists. There were approximately 940,000 physicians in the U. S. in 2008. Projections call for continuous growth of the number of physicians well into the future (Smart, 2010). Another important environmental factor potentially impacting the demand for pharmacists is the size of the business industry. In 2006, the health plan offer rate for large or medium organizations (50 or more employees) was 96.7% compared to 61.2% for small organizations (50 or less employees) (Sommers & Crimmel, 2008; Crimmel & Sommers, 2008). Insurance cov¬erage has the potential to have a positive impact on the demand for pharmacists because it provides the opportunity to obtain required prescriptions (Ranji, Wyn, Salganicoff, & Yu, 2007; Weinick, Byron, & Bierman, 2005). The population ecology theoretical framework has been used in the study of restaurants, newspapers, and physicians and their interactions with their surrounding environments. The theoretical framework proved to be beneficial in the exploration of the pharmacist supply vis-á-vis the environment. The primary constructs in the population ecology theory are carrying capacity and density. Carrying capacity consists of two sub-constructs: munificence and concentration. Density points to the current pharmacists supply and its impact on the future pharmacist supply. Numerous variables have been used in previous empirical studies of the pharmacist supply. Among the indicators of munificence in previous studies in the extant literature on pharmacist supply are total population, elderly population, hospitals, and median household income. In the present inquiry, total population was found to be a statistically significant environmental factor affecting the pharmacist supply. This was hypothesized that there is a positive linear relationship between total population and the pharmacist supply. The number of hospitals with pharmacies was also found to be a statistically significant environmental factor affecting the pharmacist supply. Hospital pharmacies are important venues wherein pharmacists can demonstrate their unique expertise and make discernible contributions to desirable health care outcomes when pharmaceutical interventions are required. In light of this empirical finding, it seems reasonable that a growth in hospital pharmacies corresponds with an increased demand for pharmacists (Kaboli, Hoth, McClimon, & Schnipper, 2006). Measures of the concentration dimension included the number of hospital beds per 100,000 population, employer volume and size and the number of insured. The only putative indicator of concentration that was found to be statistically significant in this inquiry was the number of employers with 20 or more employees. Previous pharmacist supply was found to be a significant environmental factor affecting the pharmacist supply in the future. Thus, density is a significant environmental factor affecting the pharmacist supply. Five of the 13 hypotheses tested in this inquiry were accepted. These findings are consistent with related findings in the extant literature on the pharmacist supply. Empirical findings from this inquiry are believed to make significant contributions to the literature on the pharmacist supply. The population ecology theoretical framework appears to be a suitable tool for exploring environmental factors affecting the pharmacist supply. Recommendations for future research are presented in the final chapter.

Uma população do opilião Serracutisoma pseudovarium utiliza a Pousada Esquilo do Parque Estadual Intervales (PEI), São Paulo, Brasil, como abrigo. Os animais se escondem em frestas na edificação e saem à noite para forragear, principalmente pelas paredes da construção. Essa situação constituiu uma oportunidade única de se realizar um estudo detalhado de forrageio e uso do espaço por opiliões, sendo este o primeiro objetivo deste trabalho. Além deste local, também foram acompanhados mensalmente, ao longo de 15 meses, outros quatro locais do PEI: Pousada Onça-Pintada, Castelinho, Toca dos Meninos e Gruta Detrás. Em cada um destes locais (com exceção do Castelinho), os animais foram marcados individualmente e foram realizadas medidas corpóreas. Desta forma, foi possível efetuar também um estudo populacional, que constituiu o segundo objetivo deste trabalho. Para analisar o forrageio em detalhes, um croquis da edificação foi elaborado, no qual os animais foram anotados de hora em hora, ao longo de uma noite, em cada um dos meses de coleta. Além do posicionamento do animal, também foram registrados sua marca e o comportamento exibido no momento da observação. Assim, o terceiro objetivo foi realizar um estudo comportamental através de um etograma com dados obtidos em campo, ao longo do ano inteiro. No total, 380 indivíduos foram marcados, sendo 192 na Pousada Esquilo, população foco do estudo. Destes, 71 foram fêmeas, 71 foram machos e 50 foram jovens. O tamanho estimado da população, pelos modelos de Fisher-Ford e Jolly, variou de 36 a 95 indivíduos. A análise dos deslocamentos ao longo do forrageio mostrou que os animais mesclam uma estratégia de emboscada com períodos de deslocamento, em que podem encontrar ativamente uma presa. Não foram encontradas relações entre a frequência de utilização destas estratégias e o sexo, idade ou estado nutritivo/reprodutivo dos animais. Porém, o mesmo indivíduo tendeu a repetir a mesma estratégia em diferentes noites de forrageio. Da mesma forma, a direção do deslocamento tendeu a ser repetida, embora os animais não utilizem trilhas marcadas individualmente ou coletivamente. Etogramas obtidos com dados de campo são raros, e possuem a vantagem de não serem influenciados por fatores como maior densidade de animais e disponibilidade de alimento, comuns em estudos em cativeiro. A comparação de etogramas de machos, fêmeas e jovens não mostrou grandes diferenças de comportamento entre os grupos / A population of the harvestman Serracutisoma pseudovarium uses a building (Pousada Esquilo in the Intervales State Park) as a shelter. The animals hide in crevices of the building during the day and leave at night to forage, walking mainly on the walls of the same building, which is situated inside the forest. This situation appeared to be an unique opportunity to perform a detailed study of foraging dynamics and use of space by harvestmen, which constituted the first objective of this study. In addition to Pousada Esquilo, four other places of the Park were monthly monitored during 15 months, namely: Pousada Onça-Pintada, Castelinho, Toca dos Meninos cave and Detrás cave. In each of these places (except Castelinho) the animals were marked individually and body measurements were taken. This also allowed the conduction of a population study, as the second objective of this study. In order to examine the foraging dynamics in detail, we made a croquis of the building, in which the animals were recorded hourly during one night of each sampling event. In addition to the position of the animal, its individual mark and behavior at the moment of the observation were also recorded. This behavioral study led to the third objective, which was the construction of an ethogram based on the field data collected throughout the year. A total of 380 individuals were marked. In Pousada Esquilo, the target population of the study, 192 animals were marked, being 71 females, 71 males, and 50 juveniles. The size of the population estimated by both Fisher-Ford and Jolly models varied from 36 to 95 individuals. The study of displacement during foraging showed that the animals combine an ambush strategy with periods of walking, when they might actively find a prey. No relation was found between the frequency of usage of each strategy and sex, age or nutritional/reproductive condition of the animals. However, the same individual tended to repeat a strategy in different nights. In a similar way, the direction of the movement tended to be repeated, although the animals did not use individually or collectively marked trails. Ethograms elaborated with field data are rare in the literature, and they have the advantage of not being influenced by factors as higher animal density and food availability, which are common in studies made in captivity. The comparison among ethograms of males, females and juveniles did not show great behavioral differences between the groups