L'étude des modifications post-traductionnelles a connu au cours des dernières années un regain d'intérêt notable. Tout d'abord car elle s'effectue aujourd'hui au travers d'approches basées sur la spectrométrie de masse, technique qui pendant cette période a connu de profonds bouleversements, conduisant à des études plus aisées et systématiques.Mais aussi car tant par leur variété que par le rôle qu'elles jouent dans la vie et la régulation cellulaire, ces modifications ne peuvent plus être négligées. Par ailleurs au cours de ces quinze dernières années, nous avons assisté concernant les procaryotes à un changement total de paradigme. En effet à la fin des années 90, l'idée dominante était que ces modifications pouvaient exister chez ceux-ci mais de façon très partielle et/ou très particulière.Dans ce travail, les divers degrés d'iodation de la tyrosine ont été sondés par une approche de type «shotgun » sur un organe entier, la thyroïde de souris. L'efficacité de ce type d'approche démontrée, les modifications post-traductionnelles potentiellement présentes dans des organismes modèles radiorésistants, la bactérie Deinococcus deserti et l'archée Thermococcus gammatolerans ont été analysées. Dans le premier cas, les données de protéomique montrent que de nombreuses acétylations N-terminales portent sur un motif spécifique (essentiellement des thréonines et sérines), cas très atypique pour une bactérie. Chez Thermococcus gammatolerans les acétylations N-terminales sont rares, mais la présence d'acétylations sur les chaînes latérales des lysines est notable. La présence de phosphorylations sur ces mêmes protéines, laisse entrevoir un possible phénomène de « cross talk » entre les lysines acétylées et les sérines et/ou thréonines phosphorylées.Ici, nous démontrons que la complexité du protéome chez les procaryotes par le biais des MPT est bien réelle et que de possibles interdépendances entre MPT mériteraient un regard nouveau. / Recently, the study of post-translational modifications has greatly evolved, mainly because of crucial progresses in mass spectrometry methodology which have allowed high-throughput, high resolution analysis. Their variety and their role in the regulation of key molecular mechanisms are increasingly documented. In this work, the different degrees of iodination of tyrosine were probed with a "shotgun" approach carried out from an entire organ, the mice thyroid. Post-translational modifications present in two radioresistant organism models, the bacterium Deinococcus deserti and the archaeon Thermococcus gammatolerans, were analyzed. The large scale exploration of N-terminal acetylation in D. deserti indicates a specific pattern of this modification on serine and threonine, as well as an atypical, high propension to acetylation with 50% of modified N-termini. In T. gammatolerans, N-terminal acetylation is rare, but the presence of acetylation on lysine side chains is significant. The presence of phosphorylation on these proteins suggests a potential "cross talk" between the acetylated lysine and phosphorylated serine or threonine residues. This work demonstrates that the complexity of the proteome in prokaryotes through post-translational modifications is higher than expected when extremophiles are scrutinized compared to classical prokaryote models. Interdependencies between post-translational modifications definitively deserve a fresher look.

Wnt signalling represents an important mechanism participating in control of cellular and developmental processes, including establishment of cell polarity, cell fate specification, stem cell self-renewal, tissue patterning and organogenesis, homeostasis maintenance and regeneration. Misregulation of the Wnt signalling during embryogenesis leads to developmental defects while aberrant activation later in development is associated with degenerative diseases and a number of cancers. The presented PhD thesis is based on four original publications that deal with the post-translational modifications of Wnt ligands and molecular mechanisms contributing to the regulation of a transcriptional profile of the so-called canonical Wnt pathway. Wnt signalling pathway is used repetitively both in time and different cellular contexts throughout development of multicellular organisms. Inevitably, in each single situation -catenin/TCF complexes, the downstream effectors, induce only subsets of all potential target genes. How this differential tissue- and stage-specific control over various subsets of target genes is achieved with such a limited number of nuclear effectors is not fully understood. Along with the expression of specific LEF/TCF family members or their variants containing different functional domains...

The canonical Wnt signaling pathway is one of the most important pathways involved in cell proliferation and differentiation. It is highly conserved in evolution and participates not only in embryonic development but also in adult tissue homeostasis. In the intestine, Wnt signaling is closely connected to maintenance of intestinal stem cells and renewal of the epithelia. Conversely, aberrant activation of the Wnt signaling pathway underlies different types of human diseases. Its constitutive activation results in neoplasia and specifically in development of colorectal cancer, which is the third most common malignancy in western world. The aim of this thesis was to uncover various aspects of the regulatory mechanisms of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling cascade. Furthermore, I headed to find novel Wnt pathway modulators and confirm their function in vivo. The results are presented in four publications. The first study examines murine Wnt proteins processing and the sequential order of Wnt post-translational modifications which are required for the secretion and signaling activity of the ligands. Next publication focuses on the gene Troy, which we identified as negative regulator of Wnt signaling. TROY was discovered as a Wnt target gene during DNA microarray profiling of human colorectal cancer cells....

Protein-Protein-Wechselwirkungen steuern zelluläre Funktionen auf molekularer Ebene. Posttranslationale Proteinmodifikationen beeinflussen diese Wechselwirkungen und erlauben dynamische Regulierung. Tyrosinphosphorylierung ist eine besonders relevante Modifikation, weil sie eng mit interzellulärer Regulation von Wachstum und Enticklung in Vielzellern verbunden ist. Da falsche Regulierung dieser Prozesse zu Krebs oder Autoimmunerkrankungen führen kann, ist sie auch von großem medizinischen Interesse. In Hefe-Zwei-Hybrid- Untersuchungen mit Volllängen-Proteinen im Genommaßstab wurde ein umfassender Satz von 292 größtenteils neuen phosphotyrosinabhängigen Proteinwechselwirkungen erster Güte ermittelt. Damit wurde eine Wissenslücke im Bereich der phosphotyrosinabhängigen Signalübertragung, der bisher hauptsächlich auf Peptidbindungs- und Affinitätsaufreinigungs-gekoppelten Massenspektronomieexperimenten fußte. Die Güte der Interaktionen wurde experimentell und informatisch, in Coimmunpräzipitations- und Proteinkomplementierungs-, sowie in Überrepräsentationsanalysen und Literaturvergleichen, gezeigt. Bekannte lineare Bindesequenzmotive kommen zwar gehäuft vor, können die Mehrzahl der Interaktionen aber offensichtlich nicht erklären. Die Wechselwirkungen bilden ein dichtes, einheitliches Netzwerk und widerspiegeln phosphotyrosinabhängige KEGG-Signalwege. Es hat ein Herzstück aus acht Genen, von denen sieben fest etablierte Signalverarbeitungshauptknotenpunkte darstellen. Dem achten, SH2D2A, scheint eine deutlich wichtigere Rolle zuzukommen als bisher wahrgenommen. Schliesslich wurde für eine Auswahl von GRB2-Interaktionen unterschiedliche subzelluläre Verortung vorgenommen. Zusammengenommen legen diese Ergebnisse nah, dass die hier veröffentlichten Wechselwirkungen einen wesentlichen Schritt für das Verstehen von Wachstum und Entwicklung markieren und zur Verbesserung der Behandlungsmöglichkeiten in wichtigen Medizinbereichen beitragen werden. / Protein-protein interactions govern cellular functions on the molecular level. Post-translational modifications alter these interactions allowing highly dynamic regulation. Protein tyrosine phosphorylation is an especially relevant post-translational modification, because it is tightly linked to intercellular regulation of growth and development in metazoans. Diseases like cancer or autoimmune disorders arise from misregulation of these processes generating great medical interest in protein tyrosine phosphorylation and processes relating to it. This study provides a comprehensive set of 292 mostly novel, high-quality phosphotyrosine- dependent protein-protein interactions detected in genome-scale yeast two-hybrid screens using full-length proteins filling a gap in phosphotyrosine signaling knowledge, which has so far been based largely on peptide binding and affinity purification-coupled mass spectrometry experiments. The high quality was demonstrated experimentally and computationally, in co-immunoprecipitation and protein complementation assays, as well as over-representation analyses and comparison to prior knowledge. Previously reported linear peptide motifs are reflected in the binding partners, but clearly do not account for most of the interactions, emphasizing the relevance of full-length protein context. The interactions were further shown to form an unusually dense, monolithic network with a central core and reflect and expand phosphotyrosine-related KEGG pathways. Seven of the eight core proteins are well-established signaling hubs. The eighth core gene, SH2D2A, seems to play a more central role than currently appreciated. Finally, selected interactions involving GRB2 were shown to occur in different specific subcellular localizations. Together, these results strongly suggest that the interactions presented here represent an important step toward understanding growth and development and will benefit treatment of pressing medical issues substantially.

La phosphorylation oxydative est un processus majeur du métabolisme énergétique qui est catalysée par les enzymes de la chaîne respiratoire (OXPHOS), localisées dans la membrane interne des mitochondries. Sa dérégulation est souvent associée à des pathologies, par exemple aux maladies mitochondriales et neurodégénératives. La régulation de la phosphorylation oxydative par la phosphorylation reste encore peu comprise et peu étudiée. Pourtant, la phosphorylation est une des modifications post-traductionnelles les plus répandues dans la cellule, régulant de nombreux aspects de la vie cellulaire et dont l’altération est associée à des pathologies au niveau cellulaire (Alzheimer, Parkinson, cancer). Concernant la phosphorylation oxydative, il est à noter que quelques sites de phosphorylation des complexes respiratoires, en particulier du complexe IV, ont été montrés comme ayant un effet sur leur stabilité et/ou leur activité. Toutefois la connaissance du phosphoprotéome mitochondrial n’est pas suffisamment documentée à ce jour pour identifier les différents rôles que pourraient jouer la phosphorylation au niveau de la mitochondrie et en particulier, de la chaîne respiratoire. Dans la première partie de la thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés à l’analyse du phosphoprotéome mitochondrial de Saccharomyces cerevisiae dans trois conditions de culture : respiratoire (YLAC), respiro-fermentaire (YPGalA) et fermentaire (YPGA). Nous avons quantifiés près de 300 sites de phosphorylation dans la mitochondrie, dont 90 ont un niveau de phosphorylation variable selon le substrat. Les données que nous avons obtenues constituent une base pour l’analyse de la phosphorylation mitochondriale et de la compréhension de son mécanisme. Les sites de phosphorylation de la voie métabolique énergie sont ceux présentant le plus de variation de leur niveau de phosphorylation. La localisation des résidus phosphorylés sur la structure des complexes respiratoires nous a permis d’émettre des hypothèses sur le rôle de ces résidus. Afin de normaliser la quantité des résidus phosphorylés dans les trois conditions de culture, nous avons aussi quantifié le protéome mitochondrial dans les trois conditions de culture. Ceci nous a permis d’argumenter en faveur d’un métabolisme respiro-fermentaire en YPGalA, question encore largement discutée à ce jour. Enfin, cette première étude quantitative du protéome et phosphoprotéome mitochondrial constitue une avancée dans l’étude de la régulation de la mitochondrie par la phosphorylation. Elle peut notamment apporter des informations applicables à l’étude du cancer : en effet, les cellules saines ont un métabolisme respiratoire tandis que les cellules tumorales, dérégulées, ont un métabolisme fermentaire. La seconde partie de la thèse concerne l’analyse du rôle de deux sous-unités du complexe IV de la chaîne respiratoire : les sous-unités Cox12p et Cox13p, encore peu étudiées à ce jour. De plus, deux sites de phosphorylation ont été identifiés sur la sous-unité Cox12p. Dans un premier temps, nous nous sommes intéressés au rôle de ces sous-unités, notamment au niveau de l’assemblage et de l’activité du complexe IV, en analysant des mutants Δcox12, Δcox13 et Δcox12Δcox13. Dans un deuxième temps, nous nous sommes intéressés au rôle des deux sites de phosphorylation de Cox12p : Ser7 et ser82. Nous avons généré les mutants phosphomimétiques de ces deux résidus et étudié leurs effets sur la stabilité et/ou l’activité du complexe IV. Cette seconde étude nous a notamment permis d’identifier un rôle de Cox12p sur la stabilité du complexe et un rôle de Cox13p dans sa dimérisation. La phosphorylation de Cox12p au niveau de la Ser7 semble aussi déstabiliser le complexe IV. De plus, la phosphorylation de la Ser7 et de la Ser82 semblent influencer l’interaction du cytochrome c avec le complexe IV. Cette hypothèse reste à vérifier mais est pertinente du fait de la proximité de Cox12p avec Cox2p, qui porte le lieu de fixation du cytochrome c. / Mitochondria are the powerhouses of cells, providing energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The synthesis of ATP is achieved by oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), a process catalyzed by the respiratory chain, which is located in the inner membrane of mitochondria. Deregulation of OXPHOS is often associated to diseases. Deregulation is particularly observed in mitochondrial diseases and neurodegenerative diseases, but regulation of respiration by phosphorylation is still poorly understood.However, phosphorylation is one of the most frequent post-translational modifications in the cell, modulating most processes, and defects at a cellular level are observed in some diseases (Alzheimer, Parkinson, cancer). Moreover, some phosphorylation sites have been identified in the respiratory complexes, particularly in the complex IV; some of them have an effect on the stability and/or activity of the complex, but we still lack a comprehensive study about mitochondrial phosphoproteome. Such analysis would be necessary to extend the role of phosphorylation in the regulation of mitochondrial functions in general, and in the regulation of the respiratory chain in particular.In the first part of this thesis, we focused on the analysis of the mitochondrial phosphoproteome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We studied the mitochondrial phosphoproteome in three growth conditions: in the respiratory condition (YLAC), in the fermentable condition (YPGA) and in an intermediate one (YPGalA). We quantified around 300 mitochondrial phosphorylation sites in which 90 displayed a different level of phosphorylation according to the substrate. This study is a first step towards understanding mitochondrial phosphorylation and its mechanism. Phosphorylation sites with varying levels of phosphorylation according to their conditions are mostly located on proteins involved in energy metabolism. We localized the phosphosites on the structure of the respiratory complexes when it was possible. This allowed us to make hypotheses on the role of these residues. In order to normalize the quantity of phosphorylation sites in the three growth conditions, we also studied the mitochondrial proteome in the three conditions. These results helped us to understand the energetic metabolism of galactose, which is surely intermediate between respiration and fementation, a question still debated nowadays.Finally this proteomic and phosphoproteomic study is a step forward in the comprehension of regulation of mitochondria by phosphorylation. These results can be used as a model to study cancer cells because they display a deregulation in the energetic metabolism: normal cells display respiratory metabolism whereas cancer cells exhibit fermentable metabolism.The second part of this thesis was the study of two subunits of complex IV of the respiratory chain: Cox12p and Cox13p, which had been poorly studied. Moreover, two phosphorylation sites had been identified in the subunit Cox12p. First we were interested in the role of these two proteins, thus we compared the mitochondria of mutants Δcox12, Δcox13 et Δcox12Δcox13 with wild-type mitochondria. We particularly focused on the assembly and the activity of complex IV. Secondly, we analyzed the role of the two phosphosites of Cox12p: Ser7 and Ser82. We generated phosphomimetic mutants of these two residues and observed their effects on the stability and/or activity of complex IV.All of these results allowed us to identify a role of Cox12p in the stability of complex IV and a role of Cox13p in the dimerization of complex IV. Phosphorylation of Ser7 of Cox12p seemed to destabilize the complex. Moreover phosphorylation of both Ser7 and Ser82 of Cox12p seemed to modify the interaction between cytochrome c and complex IV; this hypothesis remains to be tested but is relevant according to the proximity between Cox12p and the subunit Cox2p, where the cytochrome c interacts.

Trinucleotide repeat (TNR) instability including repeat expansions and repeat deletions is the cause of more than 40 inherited incurable neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. TNR instability is associated with DNA damage and base excision repair (BER). In this dissertation research, we explored the mechanisms of BER-mediated TNR instability via biochemical analysis of the BER protein activities, DNA structures, protein-protein interaction, and protein-DNA interaction by reconstructing BER in vitro using synthesized oligonucleotide TNR substrates and purified human proteins. First, we evaluated a germline DNA polymerase β (pol β) polymorphic variant, pol βR137Q, in leading TNR instability-mediated cancers or neurodegenerative diseases. We find that the pol βR137Q has slightly weaker DNA synthesis activity compared to that of wild-type (WT) pol β. Because of the similar abilities between pol βR137Q and WT pol β in bypassing a template loop structure, both pol βR137Q and WT pol β induces similar amount of repeat deletion. We conclude that the slightly weaker DNA synthesis activity of pol βR137Q does not alter the TNR instability compared to that of WT pol β, suggesting that the pol βR137Q carriers do not have an altered risk in developing TNR instability-mediated human diseases. We then investigated the role of DNA synthesis activities of DNA polymerases in modulating TNR instability. We find that pol βY265C and pol ν with very weak DNA synthesis activities predominantly promote TNR deletions. We identify that the sequences of TNRs may also affect DNA synthesis and alter the outcomes of TNR instability. By inhibiting the DNA synthesis activity of pol β using a pol β inhibitor, we find that the outcome of TNR instability is shifted toward repeat deletions. The results provide the direct evidence that DNA synthesis activity of DNA polymerases can be utilized as a potential therapeutic target for treating TNR expansion diseases. Finally, we explored the role of post-translational modification (PTM) of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) on TNR instability. We find that ubiquitinated PCNA (ub-PCNA) stimulates Fanconi associated nuclease 1 (FAN1) 5’-3’ exonucleolytic activities directly on hairpin structures, coordinating flap endonuclease 1 (FEN1) in removing difficult secondary structures, thereby suppressing TNR expansions. The results suggest a role of mono-ubiquitination of PCNA in maintaining TNR stability by regulating nucleases switching. Our results suggest enzymatic activities of DNA polymerases and nucleases and the regulation of the activities by PTM play important roles in BER-mediated TNR instability. This research provides the molecular basis for future development of new therapeutic strategies for prevention and treatment of TNR-mediated neurodegenerative diseases.

The citrulline-nitric oxide (NO) cycle, comprised of the enzymes argininosuccinate synthase (AS), argininosuccinate lyase (AL) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), is responsible for the regulated production of endothelial NO. Although most studies have focused on eNOS to uncover important regulatory mechanisms, we and others have determined that AS is an essential and regulated step in endothelial NO production. AS is rate limiting for endothelial NO production and is the primary source of arginine, the substrate for eNOS-mediated NO production, despite saturating intracellular levels of arginine and available arginine transport systems. AS is essential for endothelial cell viability and its expression is regulated coordinately with eNOS by TNF and thiazolidenediones with concomitant effects on NO production. Given the importance of AS for endothelial health, we explored three independent regulatory mechanisms. In Chapter One, the functional consequences of altered AS expression due to overexpression, insulin, VEGF and ceramide were studied. We demonstrated that overexpression of AS leads to enhanced NO production and that insulin, VEGF and ceramide coordinately regulate the expression of AS and eNOS. In Chapter Two, the first post-translational modifications of AS in the endothelium were characterized. We determined that AS is an endogenous phosphoprotein in the endothelium, described several levels of biological significance of AS phosphorylation, identified 7 sites of AS phosphorylation and began to uncover the direct impact of phosphorylation on AS function. Finally, in Chapter Three, endothelial AS subcellular localization was defined and important protein interactions were identified including caveolin-1 and HSP90. The work presented in this dissertation demonstrates that multiple mechanisms regulate the function of AS, often coordinately with eNOS, and have a direct impact on nitric oxide production. Our findings suggest that the global understanding of the citrulline-NO cycle as a metabolic unit will unravel new paradigms that will re-define our understanding of the regulation of vascular function by NO.

In 2001 the human proteome organization (HUPO) was created with the ambition to identify and characterize all proteins encoded in the human genome according to several criteria; their expression levels in different tissues and under different conditions; the sub-cellular localization; post-translational modifications; interactions, and if possible also the relationship between their structure and function.When the knowledge of different proteins and their potential interactions increases, so does the need for methods able to unravel the nature of molecular processes in cells and organized tissues, and ultimately for clinical use in samples obtained from patients. The in situ proximity ligation assay (in situ PLA) was developed to provide localized detection of proteins, post-translational modifications and protein-protein interactions in fixed cells and tissues. Dual recognition of the target or interacting targets is a prerequisite for the creation of a circular reporter DNA molecule, which subsequently is locally amplified for visualization of individual protein molecules in single cells. These features offer the high sensitivity and selectivity required for detection of even rare target molecules. Herein in situ PLA was first established and then employed as a tool for detection of both interactions and post-translational modifications in cultured cells and tissue samples. In situ PLA was also adapted to high content screening (HCS) for therapeutic effects, where it was applied for cell-based drug screening of inhibitors influencing post-translational modifications. This was performed using primary cells, paving the way for evaluation of drug effects on cells from patient as a diagnostic tool in personalized medicine. In conclusion, this thesis describes the development and applications of in situ PLA as a tool to study proteins, post-translational modifications and protein-protein interactions in genetically unmodified cells and tissues, and for clinical interactomics.

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are characterized by their unlimited capacity for self-renewal and the ability to contribute to every lineage of the developing embryo. The promoters of developmentally regulated loci within these cells are marked by coincident epigenetic modifications of gene activation and repression, termed bivalent domains. Trithorax group (TrxG) and Polycomb Group (PcG) proteins respectively place these epigenetic marks on chromatin and extensively colocalize with Oct4 in ESCs. Although it appears that these cells are poised and ready for differentiation, the switch that permits this transition is critically held in check. The derepression of bivalent domains upon knockdown of Oct4 or PcG underscores their respective roles in maintaining the pluripotent state through epigenetic regulation of chromatin structure. The mechanisms that facilitate the recruitment and retention of Oct4, TrxG, and PcG proteins at developmentally regulated loci to maintain the pluripotent state, however, remain unknown. Oct4 may function as either a transcriptional activator or repressor. Prevailing thought holds that both of these activities are required to maintain the pluripotent state through activation of genes implicated in pluripotency and cell-cycle control with concomitant repression of genes required for differentiation and lineage-specific differentiation. More recent evidence however, suggests that the activator function of Oct4 may play a more critical role in maintaining the pluripotent state (Hammachi et al., 2012). The purpose of the studies described in this dissertation was to clarify the underlying mechanisms by which Oct4 functions in transcriptional activation and repression. By so doing, we wished to contextualize its role in pluripotent cells, and to provide insight into how changes in Oct4 function might account for its ability to facilitate cell fate transitions. As a result of our studies we find that Oct4 function is dependent upon post-translational modifications (PTMs). We find through a combination of experimental approaches, including genome-wide microarray analysis, bioinformatics, chromatin immunoprecipitation, functional molecular, and biochemical analyses, that in the pluripotent state Oct4, Akt, and Hmgb2 participate in a regulatory feedback loop. Akt-mediated phosphorylation of Oct4 facilitates interaction with PcG recruiter Hmgb2. Consequently, Hmgb2 functions as a context dependent modulator of Akt and Oct4 function, promoting transcriptional poise at Oct4 bound loci. Sumoylation of Oct4 is then required to maintain Hmgb2 enrichment at repressed loci and to transmit the H3K27me3 mark in daughter progeny. The expression of Oct4 phosphorylation mutants however, leads to Akt inactivation and initiates the DNA Damage Checkpoint response. Our results suggest that this may subsequently facilitate chromatin reorganization and cell fate transitions. In summary, our results suggest that controlled modulation of Oct4, Akt, and Hmgb2 function is required to maintain pluripotency and for the faithful induction of transcriptional programs required for lineage specific differentiation.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Linköping : Linköpings universitet, 2008. / Härtill 4 uppsatser. Includes bibliographical references.