This thesis investigates a new data communication method in high speed integrated circuits using power distribution networks (PDNs). The conventional purpose of PDNs in integrated circuits (ICs) is to deliver power to internal nodes of an IC while meeting a level of power integrity. As the power consumption increases for very large scale integration (VLSI) systems, the number of power/ground pins increases as well. In this thesis, we propose to use PDNs for dual purposes, delivery of power and one-/two-way data communications, which is highly beneficial for pin-limited high performance ICs. To this end, we investigate signaling methods for a microscopic communication channel. Impulse-based ultra wideband (UWB) signaling is selected due to its robustness to noise and wideband characteristics. Next, we study a planar structure IC package based on the cavity resonator model (CRM) as a communication channel. Impedance characteristics of a planar structure IC package and other relevant components of an IC are important, and they are investigated for data transmission over power distribution networks. Another important aspect of the study is data transmission and reception, which we investigate through simulations. Finally, we study one possible application for one way communications, massive parallel scan design, which greatly shortens the testing time at moderate overhead. The performance is measured with eye diagrams and bit error rates (BERs) under the presence of voltage drop, simultaneous switching noise, and thermal noise. / Ph. D.

Power distribution network (PDN) design was a non-existent entity during the early days of microprocessors due to the low frequency of operation. Once the switching frequencies of the microprocessors started moving towards and beyond MHz regions, the parasitic inductance of the PCB tracks and planes started playing an important role in determining the maximum voltage on a PDN. Voltage regulator module (VRM) sup-plies only the DC power for microprocessors. When the MOSFETs inside a processor switches, it consumes currents during transition time. If this current is not provided, the voltage on the supply rails can go below the specifications of the processor. For lower MHz processors few ceramic-capacitors known as ‘decoupling capacitors’ were connected between power and ground to provide this transient current demand. When the processor frequency increased beyond MHz, the number of capacitors also increased from few numbers to hundreds of them. Nowadays, the PDN is said to be comprising all components from VRM till the die location. It includes VRM, bulk capacitors, PCB power planes, capacitor mounting pads and vias, mount for the electronic package, package capacitors, die mount and internal die capacitance. So, the PDN has evolved into a very complex system over the years. A PDN should provide three distinct roles; 1) provide transient current required by the processor 2) act as a stable reference voltage for processor 3) filter out the noise currents injected by the processor. The first two are required for the correct operation of the processor. Third one is a requirement from analog or other sensitive circuits connected to the same PDN. If the noise exits the printed circuit board (PCB), it can result in conducted and radiated EMI, which can in turn result in failure of a product in EMC testing. Every PDN design starts with the calculation of a target impedance which is given as the ratio of maximum allowed ripple voltage to the maximum transient current required by the processor. The transient current is usually taken as half the average input current. The definition of target impedance assumes that the PDN is flat over the entire frequency of operation, which is true only for a resistive network. This is seldom true for a practical PDN, since it contains inductances and capacitances. Because of this, a practical PDN has an uneven impedance versus frequency envelope. Whenever two capacitors with different self resonant frequencies are connected in parallel, their equivalent impedance produces a pole between the self resonant frequencies known as antiresonance peaks. Because of this, a PDN will have phase angles associated with them. Also, these antiresonance peaks are energy reservoirs which will be excited during the normal operation of a processor by the varying currents. The transient current of a microprocessor is modeled as a gamma function, but for practical cases it can be approximated as triangular waveforms during the transition time which is normally 10% of the time period. Depending upon the micro-operations running inside the processor, the peak value of this waveform varies. This is filtered by the on-chip capacitors, package inductance and package capacitors. Due to power gating, clock gating, IO operations, matrix multiplications and magnetic memory readings the waveforms at the board will be like pulse type, and their widths are determined by these operations. In literatures, these two types of waveforms are used for PDN analysis, depending upon at which point the study is conducted. Chapter 1 introduces the need for PDN design and the main roles of a PDN. The issue of antiresonance is introduced from a PDN perspective. Different types of capacitors used on a PDN are discussed with their strengths and limitations. The general nature of the switching noise injected by a microprocessor is also discussed. This chapter discusses the thesis contributions, and the existing work related to the field. Chapter 2 introduces a new method to calculate the target impedance (Zt ) by including the phase angles of a PDN which is based on a maximum voltage calculation. This new Zt equals to conventional Zt for symmetrical triangular switching current waveforms. The value of new Zt is less than the conventional Zt for trapezoidal excitation patterns. By adding the resonance effects into this, a maximum voltage value is obtained in this chapter. The new method includes the maximum voltage produced on a PDN when multiple antiresonance peaks are present. Example simulations are provided for triangular and pulse type excitations. A measured input current wave-form for PIC16F677 microcontroller driving eight IO ports is provided to prove the assumption of pulse type waveforms. For triangular excitation waveform, the maximum voltage predicted based on the expression was ¡0.6153 V, and the simulated maximum voltage was found to be at ¡0.5412 V which is less than the predicted value. But the predicted value based on Zt method was 1.9845 V. This shows that the conventional as well as the new target impedance method leads to over estimating the maximum voltage in certain cases. This is because most of the harmonics are falling on the minimum impedance values on a PDN. If the PDN envelope is changed by temperature and component tolerances, the maximum voltage can vary. So the best option is to design with the target impedance method. When pulse current excitation was studied for a particular PDN, the maximum voltage produced was -139.39 mV. The target impedance method produced a value of -100.24 mV. The maximum voltage predicted by the equation was -237 mV. So this shows that some times the conventional target impedance method leads to under estimating the PDN voltage. From the studies, it is shown that the time domain analysis is as important as frequency domain analysis. Another important observation is that the antiresonance peaks on a PDN should be damped both in number and peak value. Chapter 3 studies the antiresonance peak suppression methods for general cases. As discussed earlier, the antiresonance peaks are produced when two capacitors with different self resonant frequencies are connected in parallel. This chapter studies the effect of magnetic coupling between the mounting loops of two capacitors in parallel. The mounting loop area contribute to the parasitic inductance of a capacitor, and it is the major contributing factor to it. Other contributing factors are equivalent series inductance (ESL) and plane spreading inductance. The ESL depends on the size and on how the internal plates of the capacitors are formed. The spreading inductance is the inductance contributed by the parts of the planes connecting the capacitor connector vias to the die connections or to other capacitor vias. If the power and ground planes are closer, the spreading inductance is lower. On one/two layer boards dedicated power/ground planes are absent. So the spreading inductance is replaced by PCB track inductances. The inductance contributed by the mounted area of the capacitor is known as mounting inductance. On one/two layer boards dedicated power/ground planes are absent. So the spreading inductance is replaced by PCB track inductances. The dependencies of various circuit parameters on antiresonance peak are studied using circuit theory. A general condition for damping the antiresonance is formulated. The antiresonance peak reduces with Q factor. The conventional critical condition for antiresonance peak damping needs modification when magnetic coupling is present between the mounting loops of two parallel unequal value capacitors. By varying the connection geometry it is possible to obtain negative and positive coupling coefficients. The connection geometries to obtain these two are shown. An example is shown for positive and negative coupling coefficient cases with simulation and experimental results. For the example discussed, RC Æ 32 - for k Æ Å0.6 and RC Æ 64 - for k Æ ¡0.6, where RC is the critical damping value and k is the magnetic coupling coefficient between the two mounting loops. The reason for this is that, the antiresonance peak impedance value is higher for negative coupling coefficient case than that for positive coupling coefficient case. Above the self resonant frequencies of both the capacitors, the equivalent impedance of the parallel capacitors become inductive. This case is studied with two equal value capacitors in parallel. It is shown that the equivalent inductance is lower for negative coupling coefficient case as compared to positive coupling coefficient case. An example is provided with simulation and experimental results. In the experimental results, parasitic inductance is observed to be 2.6 times lower for negative coupling coefficient case than that for positive coupling coefficient case. When equal value capacitors are connected in parallel, it is advantageous to use a negative coupling geometry due to this. Chapter 4 introduces a new method to damp the antiresonance peak using a magnet-ically coupled resistive loop. Reducing the Q factor is an option to suppress the peak. In this new method, the Q factor reduction is achieved by introducing losses by mag-netically coupling a resistive loop. The proposed circuit is analyzed with circuit-theory, and governing equations are obtained. The optimum value of resistance for achieving maximum damping is obtained through analysis. Simulation and experimental results are shown to validate the theory. From the experimental results approximately 247 times reduction in antiresonance peak is observed with the proposed method. Effectiveness of the new method is limited by the magnetic coupling coefficient between the two mounting loops of capacitors. The method can be further improved if the coupling coefficient can be increased at the antiresonance frequency. Chapter 5 focuses on the third objective of a PDN, that is to reduce the noise injected by the microprocessor. A new method is proposed to reduce the conducted noise from a microprocessor with switched super capacitors. The conventional switched capacitor filters are based on the concept that the flying capacitor switching at high frequency looks like a resistor at low frequency. So for using at audio frequencies the flying capacitors were switching at MHz frequencies. In this chapter the opposite of this scenario is studied; the flying capacitors are the energy storage elements of a switched capacitor converter and they switch at lower frequencies as compared to the noise frequencies. Two basic circuits (1:1 voltage conversion ratio) providing noise isolation were discussed. They have distinct steady state input current waveforms and are explained with PSPICE simulations. The inrush current through switches are capable of destroying them in a practical implementation. A practical solution was proposed using PMOS-PNP pair. The self introduced switching noise of the converter is lower when switching frequency is low and turn ON-OFF time is higher. If power metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)s are used, the turn ON and turn OFF are slow. The switching frequency can be lowered based on the voltage drop power loss. The governing equations were formulated and simulated. It is found that the switching frequency can be lowered by increasing the capacitance value without affecting the voltage drop and power loss. From the equations, it is found that the design parameters have a cyclic dependency. Noise can short through the parasitic capacitance of the switches. Two circuits were proposed to improve the noise isolation: 1) T switch 2) ¦ switch. Of these, the ¦ switch has the higher measured transfer impedance. Experimental results showed a noise reduction of (40-20) dB for the conducted frequency range of 150 kHz - 30 MHz with the proposed 1:1 switched capacitor converter. One possible improvement of this method is to combine the noise isolation with an existing switched capacitor converter (SCC) topology. The discussed example had a switching frequency of 700 Hz, and it is shown that this can isolate the switching noise in kHz and MHz regions. In a PDN there are antiresonance peaks in kHz regions. If the proposed circuit is kept close to a microprocessor, it can reduce the excitation currents of these low frequency antiresonance peaks. Chapter 6 concludes the thesis by stating the major contributions and applications of the concepts introduced in the thesis. This chapter also discusses the future scope of these concepts.

A melhora da confiabilidade em redes de distribuição de energia elétrica é um tema importante para as indústrias de fornecimento de eletricidade, devido aos regulamentos estritos em muitos países. Depois de uma falha na rede, algumas chaves são usadas para isolar a falha, enquanto outras restauram a energia a alguns consumidores. A ótima seleção das chaves que serão abertas ou fechadas para restaurar a energia é conhecido como o problema de restauração de serviço. A instalação de chaves em posições estratégicas pode reduzir o tempo de parada, e assim melhorar a confiabilidade da rede. A seleção ótima de posições para instalar chaves é conhecido como o problema de alocação de chaves. Estes dois problemas estão relacionados estreitamente. Esta dissertação estuda o problema de alocação de chaves, considerando o problema de restauração de serviço como um subproblema. Dois métodos são propostos para estimar a confiabilidade de uma rede de distribuição com um conjunto dado de chaves instaladas. O foco principal está nas heurísticas para resolver o problema composto. Propõe-se aqui métodos como busca tabu, procedimento de busca gulosa adaptativa aleatória (sigla em inglês: GRASP), e procedimento iterativo de construção por amostras com reconexão de caminhos. Também estuda-se o benefício dos métodos de construção gulosa, semigulosa, aleatória e por amostras, e estuda-se o desempenho das estratégias de busca local por amostras, primeira melhoria e melhor melhoria. Os diferentes métodos são comparados e analisados. Os resultados mostram que os métodos por amostras são baratos e levam a soluções de boa qualidade. O procedimento iterativo de construção por amostras com reconexão de caminhos é o melhor método proposto para resolver o problema composto que é proposto nesta dissertação. / The improvement of reliability in electrical power distribution networks is an important issue for electricity supply industries, due to strict regulations in many countries. After a failure in the network, some switches are used to isolate the failure, while others restore the energy to some consumers. The optimal selection of the switches to open or close to restore energy is called the service restoration problem. The installation of switches in strategic places may reduce the outage time in case of blackouts, and thus improve the reliability of the network. The optimal selection of places to install switches is called the switch allocation problem. These two problems are closely related. This dissertation studies the switch allocation problem, considering the service restoration problem as a sub-problem. Two methods are proposed to estimate the reliability of a distribution network with a given set of installed switches. The main focus is in heuristics to solve the joint problem. It proposes methods like tabu search, greedy randomized adaptive search procedure, and iterated sample construction with path relinking. It also studies the benefit of greedy, semigreedy, random, and sample construction methods, and studies the performance of sample, first improvement and best improvement local search strategies. The different methods are compared and analyzed. The results show that sample approaches are inexpensive and lead to solutions of good quality. Iterated sample construction with path relinking is the best method to solve the joint problem that is proposed in this dissertation.

A melhora da confiabilidade em redes de distribuição de energia elétrica é um tema importante para as indústrias de fornecimento de eletricidade, devido aos regulamentos estritos em muitos países. Depois de uma falha na rede, algumas chaves são usadas para isolar a falha, enquanto outras restauram a energia a alguns consumidores. A ótima seleção das chaves que serão abertas ou fechadas para restaurar a energia é conhecido como o problema de restauração de serviço. A instalação de chaves em posições estratégicas pode reduzir o tempo de parada, e assim melhorar a confiabilidade da rede. A seleção ótima de posições para instalar chaves é conhecido como o problema de alocação de chaves. Estes dois problemas estão relacionados estreitamente. Esta dissertação estuda o problema de alocação de chaves, considerando o problema de restauração de serviço como um subproblema. Dois métodos são propostos para estimar a confiabilidade de uma rede de distribuição com um conjunto dado de chaves instaladas. O foco principal está nas heurísticas para resolver o problema composto. Propõe-se aqui métodos como busca tabu, procedimento de busca gulosa adaptativa aleatória (sigla em inglês: GRASP), e procedimento iterativo de construção por amostras com reconexão de caminhos. Também estuda-se o benefício dos métodos de construção gulosa, semigulosa, aleatória e por amostras, e estuda-se o desempenho das estratégias de busca local por amostras, primeira melhoria e melhor melhoria. Os diferentes métodos são comparados e analisados. Os resultados mostram que os métodos por amostras são baratos e levam a soluções de boa qualidade. O procedimento iterativo de construção por amostras com reconexão de caminhos é o melhor método proposto para resolver o problema composto que é proposto nesta dissertação. / The improvement of reliability in electrical power distribution networks is an important issue for electricity supply industries, due to strict regulations in many countries. After a failure in the network, some switches are used to isolate the failure, while others restore the energy to some consumers. The optimal selection of the switches to open or close to restore energy is called the service restoration problem. The installation of switches in strategic places may reduce the outage time in case of blackouts, and thus improve the reliability of the network. The optimal selection of places to install switches is called the switch allocation problem. These two problems are closely related. This dissertation studies the switch allocation problem, considering the service restoration problem as a sub-problem. Two methods are proposed to estimate the reliability of a distribution network with a given set of installed switches. The main focus is in heuristics to solve the joint problem. It proposes methods like tabu search, greedy randomized adaptive search procedure, and iterated sample construction with path relinking. It also studies the benefit of greedy, semigreedy, random, and sample construction methods, and studies the performance of sample, first improvement and best improvement local search strategies. The different methods are compared and analyzed. The results show that sample approaches are inexpensive and lead to solutions of good quality. Iterated sample construction with path relinking is the best method to solve the joint problem that is proposed in this dissertation.

A melhora da confiabilidade em redes de distribuição de energia elétrica é um tema importante para as indústrias de fornecimento de eletricidade, devido aos regulamentos estritos em muitos países. Depois de uma falha na rede, algumas chaves são usadas para isolar a falha, enquanto outras restauram a energia a alguns consumidores. A ótima seleção das chaves que serão abertas ou fechadas para restaurar a energia é conhecido como o problema de restauração de serviço. A instalação de chaves em posições estratégicas pode reduzir o tempo de parada, e assim melhorar a confiabilidade da rede. A seleção ótima de posições para instalar chaves é conhecido como o problema de alocação de chaves. Estes dois problemas estão relacionados estreitamente. Esta dissertação estuda o problema de alocação de chaves, considerando o problema de restauração de serviço como um subproblema. Dois métodos são propostos para estimar a confiabilidade de uma rede de distribuição com um conjunto dado de chaves instaladas. O foco principal está nas heurísticas para resolver o problema composto. Propõe-se aqui métodos como busca tabu, procedimento de busca gulosa adaptativa aleatória (sigla em inglês: GRASP), e procedimento iterativo de construção por amostras com reconexão de caminhos. Também estuda-se o benefício dos métodos de construção gulosa, semigulosa, aleatória e por amostras, e estuda-se o desempenho das estratégias de busca local por amostras, primeira melhoria e melhor melhoria. Os diferentes métodos são comparados e analisados. Os resultados mostram que os métodos por amostras são baratos e levam a soluções de boa qualidade. O procedimento iterativo de construção por amostras com reconexão de caminhos é o melhor método proposto para resolver o problema composto que é proposto nesta dissertação. / The improvement of reliability in electrical power distribution networks is an important issue for electricity supply industries, due to strict regulations in many countries. After a failure in the network, some switches are used to isolate the failure, while others restore the energy to some consumers. The optimal selection of the switches to open or close to restore energy is called the service restoration problem. The installation of switches in strategic places may reduce the outage time in case of blackouts, and thus improve the reliability of the network. The optimal selection of places to install switches is called the switch allocation problem. These two problems are closely related. This dissertation studies the switch allocation problem, considering the service restoration problem as a sub-problem. Two methods are proposed to estimate the reliability of a distribution network with a given set of installed switches. The main focus is in heuristics to solve the joint problem. It proposes methods like tabu search, greedy randomized adaptive search procedure, and iterated sample construction with path relinking. It also studies the benefit of greedy, semigreedy, random, and sample construction methods, and studies the performance of sample, first improvement and best improvement local search strategies. The different methods are compared and analyzed. The results show that sample approaches are inexpensive and lead to solutions of good quality. Iterated sample construction with path relinking is the best method to solve the joint problem that is proposed in this dissertation.

Neste trabalho é apresentado um método probabilístico para avaliação do desempenho de redes de distribuição considerando incertezas na demanda das cargas e na potência gerada por sistemas distribuídos intermitentes. Os consumidores são divididos em agrupamentos por classe e faixa de consumo e a modelagem da demanda horária dos consumidores de cada agrupamento é realizada por uma lei de distribuição acumulada de probabilidade (CDF) adequada. A geração distribuída é contemplada pela consideração de fonte solar fotovoltaica. O procedimento de simulação do Método de Monte Carlo é empregado e a técnica da Joint Normal Transform é utilizada na geração de números aleatórios correlacionados, empregados na amostragem da demanda dos consumidores e da energia produzida pelos sistemas de geração distribuídos. O método proposto foi aplicado ao conhecido sistema de 13 barras do IEEE e os resultados dos indicadores de perdas na operação bem como indicadores de violação de tensão crítica e precária obtidos com o modelo probabilístico são comparados aos obtidos com o modelo determinístico convencional. É demonstrado que nem sempre a média é uma descrição suficiente para o comportamento dos componentes de redes de distribuição e que é mais adequado utilizar uma representação com intervalos de confiança para as grandezas de interesse. / This work presents a probabilistic method for performance evaluation of distribution networks considering uncertainties in load demand and power generated by intermittent distributed systems. Consumers are divided into clusters by class and consumption range, so the modeling for the hourly demand of the consumers on each cluster is performed by a suitable cumulative probability distribution (CDF). Distributed generation is considered by means of solar photovoltaic sources. The Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) Method is employed and the Joint Normal Transform technique is applied for correlated random numbers generation, used to sample consumer demand and the energy generated by distributed generation systems. The proposed method was applied in the well-known IEEE 13 node test feeder and the results of the operation losses as well as voltage violation indices obtained by the probabilistic model are compared to those obtained with the conventional deterministic model. It is shown that the mean is not always a sufficient description for the behavior of distribution network components and that it is more appropriate to use confidence intervals for the quantities of interest.

Chiplets have become an increasingly popular technology for extending Moore's Law and improving the reliability of integrated circuits. They do this by placing several small, interacting chips on an interposer rather than the traditional, single chip used for a device. Like any other type of integrated circuit, chiplets are in need of a physical layer of security to defend against hardware Trojans, counterfeiting, probing, and other methods of tampering and physical attacks. Power distribution networks are ubiquitous across chiplet and monolithic ICs, and are essential to the function of the device. Thus, we propose a method of fingerprinting transient signals within the PDN to identify individual chiplet systems and physical-layer threats against these devices. In this work, we describe a Python-wrapped HSPICE model we have built to automate testing of our proposed PDN fingerprinting methods. We also document the methods of analysis used- wavelet transforms and time-domain measurements- to identify unique characteristics in the voltage response signals to transient stimuli. We provide the true positive and false positive rates of these methods for a simulated lineup of chips across varying operating conditions to determine uniqueness and reliability of our techniques. Our simulations show that, if characterized at varying supply voltage and temperature conditions in the factory, and the sensors used for identification meet the sample rates and voltage resolutions used in our tests, our protocol provides sufficient uniqueness and reliability to be enrolled. We recommend that experimentation be done to evaluate our methods in hardware and implement sensing techniques to meet the requirements shown in this work.

Os sistemas elétricos de distribuição estão evoluindo rapidamente devido à penetração de geração distribuída e ao crescimento na utilização de avançadas estruturas de medição e sistemas de gerenciamento de distribuição de energia elétrica. Esta evolução traz consigo novos desafios devido à intermitência da geração, a qual pode gerar impactos indesejáveis nos sistemas de distribuição, como a interação de diferentes harmônicos. As Unidades de Medição Fasorial (PMUs) tem potencial para desempenhar um importante papel no monitoramento de sistemas elétricos de distribuição por meio dos fasores com medidas temporalmente sincronizadas de tensão e corrente em vários locais do sistema, oferecendo assim inúmeras possibilidades para estimar o estado de uma rede de distribuição. Porém, para serem utilizadas amplamente em redes de distribuição, é necessário que as PMUs apresentem um menor custo e possuam algumas características funcionais exclusivas para o uso nestas redes. Assim, o objetivo desta tese consiste no desenvolvimento de uma unidade de medição fasorial de baixo custo com características originais para o uso no nível de distribuição de energia elétrica, tais como medição fasorial nas redes de média e baixa tensão utilizando a modelagem dos transformadores e a identificação e estimação dos parâmetros da causa de ocorrência de distúrbios elétricos. Para isso, foram construídos dois protótipos da unidade de medição fasorial proposta neste trabalho, visando verificar a sincronização na medição de fasores de tensão e corrente. Os protótipos também foram acoplados à rede com diferentes combinações de impedância e alimentaram variadas cargas, onde foi possível através das técnicas implementadas nos equipamentos identificar e estimar os parâmetros elétricos da origem (rede ou carga) da ocorrência de variações na tensão e potência fornecidas pela rede distribuição. / Power distribution systems are evolving at a high pace largely due to the proliferation of distributed energy resources and the growing utilization of advanced metering infrastructures and distribution management system. This evolution is also leading to new challenges due large penetration of intermittent distributed generation, which can lead to noticeable impacts on distribution feeders. Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) have the potential to play an essential role in power distribution system monitoring. For providing synchronized measurements of voltage and current phasors at various system locations, PMUs offer numerous possibilities for ascertaining information relating to the state of the power distribution system. However, to be used widely in power distribution systems, its necessary that PMUs get a low cost and have some exclusive features for these systems. Thus, the main objective of this thesis have consisted of developing a low cost Phasor Measurement Unit with original features proposed for distribution level, such as compatibility with low and medium voltage power networks using transformer modeling and also the identification and parameter estimation of the cause of electrical disturbances. So, they were built two prototypes of the Phasor Measurement Unit, in order to verify the synchronization in the measurement of voltage and current phasors. The prototypes were also coupled to the network with different combinations of impedance and they fed varying loads, where it was possible through the techniques implemented in the equipment identify and estimate electrical parameters of the cause (network or load) of variations in voltage and power supplied by the network distribution.

Os sistemas elétricos de distribuição estão evoluindo rapidamente devido à penetração de geração distribuída e ao crescimento na utilização de avançadas estruturas de medição e sistemas de gerenciamento de distribuição de energia elétrica. Esta evolução traz consigo novos desafios devido à intermitência da geração, a qual pode gerar impactos indesejáveis nos sistemas de distribuição, como a interação de diferentes harmônicos. As Unidades de Medição Fasorial (PMUs) tem potencial para desempenhar um importante papel no monitoramento de sistemas elétricos de distribuição por meio dos fasores com medidas temporalmente sincronizadas de tensão e corrente em vários locais do sistema, oferecendo assim inúmeras possibilidades para estimar o estado de uma rede de distribuição. Porém, para serem utilizadas amplamente em redes de distribuição, é necessário que as PMUs apresentem um menor custo e possuam algumas características funcionais exclusivas para o uso nestas redes. Assim, o objetivo desta tese consiste no desenvolvimento de uma unidade de medição fasorial de baixo custo com características originais para o uso no nível de distribuição de energia elétrica, tais como medição fasorial nas redes de média e baixa tensão utilizando a modelagem dos transformadores e a identificação e estimação dos parâmetros da causa de ocorrência de distúrbios elétricos. Para isso, foram construídos dois protótipos da unidade de medição fasorial proposta neste trabalho, visando verificar a sincronização na medição de fasores de tensão e corrente. Os protótipos também foram acoplados à rede com diferentes combinações de impedância e alimentaram variadas cargas, onde foi possível através das técnicas implementadas nos equipamentos identificar e estimar os parâmetros elétricos da origem (rede ou carga) da ocorrência de variações na tensão e potência fornecidas pela rede distribuição. / Power distribution systems are evolving at a high pace largely due to the proliferation of distributed energy resources and the growing utilization of advanced metering infrastructures and distribution management system. This evolution is also leading to new challenges due large penetration of intermittent distributed generation, which can lead to noticeable impacts on distribution feeders. Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) have the potential to play an essential role in power distribution system monitoring. For providing synchronized measurements of voltage and current phasors at various system locations, PMUs offer numerous possibilities for ascertaining information relating to the state of the power distribution system. However, to be used widely in power distribution systems, its necessary that PMUs get a low cost and have some exclusive features for these systems. Thus, the main objective of this thesis have consisted of developing a low cost Phasor Measurement Unit with original features proposed for distribution level, such as compatibility with low and medium voltage power networks using transformer modeling and also the identification and parameter estimation of the cause of electrical disturbances. So, they were built two prototypes of the Phasor Measurement Unit, in order to verify the synchronization in the measurement of voltage and current phasors. The prototypes were also coupled to the network with different combinations of impedance and they fed varying loads, where it was possible through the techniques implemented in the equipment identify and estimate electrical parameters of the cause (network or load) of variations in voltage and power supplied by the network distribution.

Ο σκοπός αυτής της διπλωματικής εργασίας ήταν η μελέτη και η καταγραφή των σφαλμάτων που έχουν προκληθεί από ποικίλες αιτίες στο Δίκτυο Διανομής (Μέση Τάση) της Ηλεκτρικής Ενέργειας της νήσου Κρήτης και πιο συγκεκριμένα στο εναέριο δίκτυο αυτού. Για την κατανόηση όμως του λόγου που οι εν λόγω αιτίες οδήγησαν σε σφάλματα, αλλά και για να έχουμε μια πιο πλήρη εικόνα επί του αντικειμένου, έπρεπε αρχικά να γίνει μια συνοπτική παρουσίαση ενός τυπικού συστήματος ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας, αφού πρώτα αναλυθεί στα επιμέρους τμήματά του. Εν συνεχεία αναλύουμε λεπτομερώς την διαμόρφωση των δικτύων διανομής και τον βασικό εξοπλισμό από τον οποίο αποτελείται. Ακολούθως μελετούμε τα εναέρια δίκτυα διανομής μέσης τάσης παρουσιάζοντας πλήρως όλα τα στοιχεία που συμβάλλουν στην ομαλή διανομή της ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας στον καταναλωτή. Στο επόμενο βήμα παρουσιάζουμε την IEEE οδηγία για τη συμπεριφορά έναντι κεραυνών των εναέριων γραμμών διανομής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας, μιας και οι επικρατούντες κλιματολογικές - περιβαλλοντολογικές συνθήκες είναι από τις βασικές αιτίες πρόκλησης σφαλμάτων στα εναέρια δίκτυα. Τέλος, παρουσιάζουμε τα σφάλματα που έχουν καταγραφεί στα ημερήσια δελτία σημαντικών μη προγραμματισμένων διακοπών της νήσου Κρήτης για τα έτη από το 2005 έως το 2009. / The aim of this diploma thesis was the examination and comprehension of the aerial distribution networks of electrical power. In the beginning we briefly analyzed the electric power systems (power stations, transmission networks, distribution networks). After that we thoroughly examined the configuration of the distribution networks with the observation of the ways the networks are planned and their equipment, which is used for their protection and for the connection between them. Afterwards we examined the aerial distribution networks of medium voltage, by fully presenting all the elements which contribute in the normal distribution of the electric flow to the customers. Finally we present the faults that have happened to the middle voltage distribution circuit of the island Crete and we compare them with the theoretical number of faults, according the IEEE guide in order to come to some useful conclusions.