As the popularity of wireless networks increases, so does the need to protect them. In recent years, many researchers have studied the limitations of the security mechanisms that protect wireless networks. There has also been much research in the power consumption introduced by the network card. Technologies such as CPU and memory are increasing and so is their need for power, but battery technology is increasing at a much slower rate, forming a“battery gap". Because of this, battery capacity plays a major role in the usability of the devices. Although the effect of the network communication on a mobile device's battery has been widely researched, there has been less research on the effect of the security profile on energy usage. In this thesis, we examine a method for analyzing trade-offs between energy and security proposed by Colon Osorio et al. This research describes a method to identify the most appropriate security profile for a given application, given battery constraints. The same method can also be used to discover the minimum battery capacity to maintain a minimum security profile for a predefined amount of time. Trade-offs and optimality are analyzed using a cost-energy function, CE, and security measure, SM. CE encompasses the energy required to use countermeasure M against a specific vulnerability, Vi, as well as the energy consumed in bulk transfer. SM is a numerical representation of the effectiveness of a set of security mechanisms which utilize the set of countermeasures to defend against a set of vulnerabilities. Using CE and SM, we can compare different security profiles using a trade-off model. Having defined such a framework, we investigate different instances and examples where the use of the model is helpful in accessing trade-offs between security obtained and energy consumed to achieve such security. This was first examined through an analytical study, followed by experimentation. The major contributions of this work are an energy-security trade-off model and its empirical validation. This work extends the empirical experimentation done by other researchers such as Potlapally et al., Karri et al., and Stemm and Katz on the relationship between energy and the security of wireless communications in battery-constrained devices.

Thesis. 1977. M.Arch.A.S.--Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dept. of Architecture. / MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND ROTCH. / Bibliography : leaves 174-178. / by Conrad Heeschen. / M.Arch.A.S.

Due to the increasingly detrimental impacts of the global fossil fuel-driven energy economy, technological solutions that can mitigate the deleterious emissions from fossil fuel conversion or that can lessen societal dependence on fossil fuels are urgently required. The conversion of biomass, a renewable energy feedstock, into energy and fuels that are fungible with those derived from fossil fuels would help supplant some of the global fossil fuel consumption with sustainable energy generation. However, one of the main disadvantages of biomass as an energy feedstock when compared to fossil fuels is its low energy density. The majority of thermochemical biomass conversion technologies therefore focus on converting a low energy density feedstock in biomass to a higher energy density end product. Due to the operating parameters involved in these processes, they are typically accomplished on larger and more centralized scales by skilled operators. Few technologies exist that utilize biomass in a sustainable manner under a distributed energy framework, which would allow energy consumers to use locally available resources and waste material to generate energy. The alkaline thermal treatment of biomass has recently been proposed as a novel method for producing high purity H₂ with suppressed COₓ formation under moderate reaction conditions (i.e., 573 K and ambient pressure). Essentially, biomass, which in this study were the model compounds of glucose and cellulose, is reacted with an alkali metal hydroxide, such as NaOH, in such a molar proportion that all of the carbon and oxygen embodied in the reactants is fixed as an alkali metal carbonate, while all of the elemental hydrogen is released as pure H₂ gas. Thus, fuel cell ready H₂ can be produced from biomass in a single reactor. This technology has great potential for sustainable bioenergy production since it can handle a wide range of feedstocks including biomass and biogenic wastes with high water content. In addition to having the potential to be a distributed energy generation technology, the alkaline thermal treatment of biomass could help meet increasing industrial demand for H₂ in a more sustainable manner, as 96% of current H₂ generation is derived from fossil fuels. The alkaline thermal treatment technology is also relatively unexplored; thus, the effects of parameters such as feedstock type, reaction temperature, heating rate, NaOH:Biomass ratio, method of reactant mixing, flow of steam, and concentration of steam flow, on the gaseous and solid products formed are not fully understood. This study was undertaken to quantify the effects of these non-catalytic variables on the alkaline thermal treatment reaction and to elucidate potential reaction pathways in order to better evaluate the potential of the alkaline thermal treatment technology as a viable biomass conversion technology. In the study of the alkaline thermal treatment of glucose, NaOH did play an important role in suppressing COₓ formation while facilitating H₂ production and promoting CH₄ formation. The non-catalytic alkaline thermal treatment of glucose in the absence of steam flow resulted in a maximum H₂ conversion of about 27% at 523 K with a stoichiometric mixture of NaOH and glucose. The solids analysis confirmed the presence of Na₂CO₃ in the solid product, indicating the inherent carbon management potential of the alkaline thermal treatment process. The addition of steam flow increased conversion to H₂ from 25% to 33%, while decreasing total CH₄ formation 5 fold. After the investigation of the alkaline thermal treatment applied to glucose, cellulose was studied as a feedstock because it is the predominant component of lignocellulosic biomass, the target feedstock source for second generation biofuels. Like in the glucose study, it was found that H₂ and hydrocarbon formation occurred with the addition of NaOH to cellulose under thermal treatment, while the further addition of steam enhanced H₂ production and suppressed hydrocarbon formation. Both the enhancement of H₂ conversion and the suppression of hydrocarbon formation with the addition of steam flow was found to be more significant for cellulose than it was for glucose, with in the cellulose case H₂ conversion doubling from 25% to 48%, and CH₄ formation falling 35 times from the no steam flow case. Also like the glucose study, much of the carbon and oxygen present in the reactants were converted to Na₂CO₃. With the knowledge gained about the effects various reaction parameters had on the alkaline thermal treatment reaction, a study of the reaction pathways of the alkaline thermal treatment of cellulose reaction was undertaken. Compounds formed at intermediate temperatures were identified, tested for gaseous production when reacted with NaOH, and the gas product formation rate trends of these reactions were compared with those trends observed from the alkaline thermal treatment of cellulose reaction. The intermediates identified included sodium carboxylate salts, namely sodium formate, sodium glycolate, and sodium acetate, among others. The reactions of these compounds with NaOH were found to yield H₂ and CH₄, with the gaseous formation rate trends being similar to trends observed for the alkaline thermal treatment reaction for cellulose in certain temperature regions. Particular focus was placed on sodium glycolate, which was an intermediate found in high concentration and that reacted with NaOH to produce both H₂ and CH₄. The formation of Na₂CO₃ at intermediate temperatures was also studied, and the comparison of Na₂CO₃ conversion to H₂ conversion at intermediate temperatures revealed that H₂ and Na₂CO₃ formation do not always occur at the 2:1 H₂:Na₂CO₃ molar ratio implied by the proposed stoichiometry of the alkaline thermal treatment reaction for cellulose. The aforementioned studies were conducted both in the presence and absence of steam flow to study its influence on the reaction. Finally H₂ formation kinetic studies were performed on the alkaline thermal treatment of cellulose system as well as the H₂-producing sodium carboxylate salt reaction systems. Sodium formate and sodium oxalate were found to have better selectivity toward H₂ formation and their reactions were more kinetically favored than sodium glycolate with NaOH. A comparison of the isothermal H₂ kinetics between the cellulose and sodium glycolate systems at higher temperatures, however, revealed that H₂ conversion in the alkaline thermal treatment of cellulose appeared to be limited by the rate of conversion of sodium glycolate. From the results of these studies, recommendations are made for future research directions aimed at improving the alkaline thermal treatment of cellulose reaction.

In the wake of concerns about the long-term integrity and containment of sub-surface CO₂ sequestration reservoirs, many efforts have been made to improve the monitoring, verification, and accounting methods for geo-sequestered CO₂. This Ph.D. project has been part of a larger U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) sponsored research project to demonstrate the feasibility of a system designed to tag CO₂ with radiocarbon at a concentration of one part per trillion, which is the ambient concentration of ¹⁴C in the modern atmosphere. Because carbon found at depth is naturally free of ¹⁴C, this tag would easily differentiate pre-existing carbon in the underground from anthropogenic, injected carbon and provide an excellent handle for monitoring its whereabouts in the subsurface. It also creates an excellent handle for adding up anthropogenic carbon inventories. Future inventories in effect count ¹⁴C atoms. Accordingly, we developed a ¹⁴C tagging system suitable for use at the part-per-trillion level. This tagging system uses small containers of tracer fluid of ¹⁴C enriched CO₂. The content of these containers is transferred into a CO₂ stream readied for underground injection in a controlled manner so as to tag it at the part-per-trillion level. These containers because of their shape are referred to in this document as tracer loops. The demonstration of the tracer injection involved three steps. First, a tracer loop filling station was designed and constructed featuring a novel membrane based gas exchanger, which degassed the fluid in the first step and then equilibrated the fluid with CO₂ at fixed pressure and fixed temperature. It was demonstrated that this approach could achieve uniform solutions and prevent the formation of bubbles and degassing downstream. The difference between measured and expected results of the CO₂ content in the tracer loop was below 1%. Second, a high-pressure flow loop was built for injecting, mixing, and sampling of the fast flowing stream of pressurized CO₂ tagged with our tracer. The laboratory scale evaluation demonstrated the accuracy and effectiveness of our tracer loops and injection system. The ¹⁴C/¹²C ratio we achieved in the high pressure flow loop was at the part per trillion level, and deviation between the experimental result and theoretical expectation was 6.1%. Third, a field test in Iceland successfully demonstrated a similar performance whereby ¹⁴CO₂ tracer could be injected in a controlled manner into a CO₂ stream at the part per trillion level over extended periods of time. The deviation between the experimental result and theoretical expectation was 7.1%. In addition the project considered a laser-based ¹⁴C detection system. However, the laser-based ¹⁴C detection system was shown to possess inadequate sensitivity for detecting ambient levels of ¹⁴CO₂. Alternative methods for detecting ¹⁴C, such as saturated cavity absorption ring down spectroscopy and scintillation counting may still be suitable. In summary, the project has defined the foundation of carbon-14 tagging for the monitoring, verification, and accounting of geological carbon sequestration.

This dissertation investigates the relationship between electricity market reforms and the development of renewable energy through interviews with policymakers, energy experts, and industry representatives in Brazil. Within the context of market-oriented power reforms initiated in the 1990s, policymakers have attempted to diversify the energy supply and reduce the country’s reliance on hydroelectric power. However, Brazil’s pre-existing hydropower infrastructure has hindered the diffusion of alternative options. By looking at energy auctions and net-metering regulations for wind and solar energy, this research explores the role of independent regulators in facilitating the development of non-hydro renewable sources of energy. While academic and policy debates center on designing public support schemes for renewable energy, this research argues that adaptive regulation can provide opportunities for new technologies that policy instruments alone are unable to achieve. In particular, the governance characteristics of regulatory agencies are critical to the effective articulation of renewable energy policies. Three subnational case studies further demonstrate how states and regions contribute to developing and deploying wind and solar energy technologies.

As one of the main contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, the electricity sector is anticipated to go through the following transitions in order to meet deep decarbonization targets for a sustainable future: 1) on the supply side, the electric grid is increasing its reliance on renewable generation, such as wind and solar; 2) on the demand side, heating is shifting from direct burning of fuel on site to electric, namely heat pumps. This dissertation evaluates the benefits of selected methods to alleviate pressing challenges associated with the electricity sector transitions on both the supply side and the demand side. First, on the supply side, the benefits of renewable generation forecasting coupled with storage are evaluated for an electric grid with high wind energy penetration and load following generation served by fossil fuels. A time series based forecasting method is found to have high forecasting accuracy and low computational costs. This methodology is applied to a real world situation in Sao Vicente, an island with 30% current wind energy penetration. The simulation results show that coupling forecasting and energy storage would further increase the wind penetration up to 38% without additional installation of wind turbines. Second, on the demand side, the benefits of demand side management using heat pumps enabled by the inherent thermal storage of the building envelope are evaluated during extreme cold events when the electric demand peaks and the wind power is often highly fluctuating. A second order thermal model is developed to thoroughly characterize the thermal inertia and leakage of the building envelope and quantify the amount of flexibility the building envelope is able to provide. This methodology is applied to five historical extreme cold events in New York City and the simulation results show that the requirements for short term ramping due to high wind variability are greatly reduced through the sequential controls of the heat pumps. This dissertation also studies the implications of the electricity sector transitions on the residential sector with regard to costs, energy, missions, and policy. Four representative residential city blocks located in three different climate regions of the United States are analyzed using fine spatial and temporal real historical consumption and weather data. Residential blocks in different climate regions have different weather patterns, demand profiles, and local renewable resources. Future energy scenarios with electric heating at high renewable penetration levels are modeled and compared for the representative residential city blocks. Detailed costs comparisons are evaluated for various technological interventions including 1) air source and ground source heat pumps; 2) battery and thermal storage; and 3) wind and solar generation. This dissertation finds that 1) the optimal wind and solar generation mix varies with location and amount of storage and 2) battery storage is more cost effective than thermal storage, ground source heat pumps, and overbuilt renewable generation. In addition, optimal pathways to deep decarbonization for these representative residential city blocks are proposed and compared. Strategic actions are identified for the homes and suggestions are discussed for policy makers and local utilities. This dissertation through its methodologies and analysis enables home owners and policy makers to make cost assessments in achieving the goals of deep decarbonization.

With the increase of the the global energy consumption has also been increasing, which is about 18 TW nowadays (Dudley, 2018), the anthropogenic CO2 emissions have also been increasing, which is about 410 ppm nowadays (Dudley, 2018; Tans & Keeling, 2019). Numerous evidences have been reported indicating that high atmospheric CO2 concentration can have significant greenhouse effect and thus lead to global warming and climate change (Pachauri et al, 2014; Hansen et al, 2013). Therefore, measures need to be taken to control and reduce the atmospheric CO2 concentration. In such circumstance, carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) technologies have been proposed and developed to close the carbon cycle. Mineral carbonation (MC) is one of the CCUS technologies, which mimics the natural silicate weathering process to react CO2 with silicate materials so that carbon can be stabilized in the form of insoluble carbonates for permanent carbon storage (Seifritz, 1990; Lackner et al, 1995). Both Ca- or Mg-bearing silicate minerals and alkaline silicate industrial wastes can be employed as the feedstock for mineral carbonation (Sanna et al, 2014; Gadikota et al, 2014; Park, 2005; Park & Fan, 2004; Park et al, 2003; Park & Zhou, 2017; Zhou, 2014; Zhao, 2014; Swanson, 2014). While they share similar chemistries and total Mg and Ca contents, different MC feedstock can lead to different challenges for CCUS. As for silicate minerals, although they have large enough capacity to mineralize all the anthropogenic CO2 emissions, their reactivities are generally very low, and measures should be developed to accelerate the carbonation kinetics of the minerals (Sanna et al, 2014). However, the elemental extraction of the silicate minerals is a relatively complicated kinetic process, because silica-rich passivation layer can form on the particle surface during mineral dissolution process and thus the rate-limiting step of the process can change from chemical reaction to mass transfer. Without a clear understanding of the elemental extraction kinetics, the design and evaluation of different acceleration methods aiming at different rate-limiting steps of the process can be challenging. As for alkaline industrial wastes, they are generally more reactive than silicate minerals, but can be more heterogeneous with more complicated compositions. In such cases, the separation and recovery of other elements should also be integrated with the carbonation process so that the overall sustainability of the mineral carbonation technology can be enhanced. In order to address these challenges, this study focused on the fundamental understanding of dissolution and carbonation behaviors of alkaline silicate materials and integration of step-wise separations of rare-earth elements (REEs). Both experimental and modeling studies were carried out to provide insights into how Mg and Ca as well as REEs are leaching into solvents at different conditions, and the fundamental understandings on mineral dissolution kinetics and mechanisms were also put forward. The fate of REEs in different product streams was also identified, and methods were developed and optimized to recover and concentrate REEs, while producing solid carbonates with highest purities. Hopefully, the findings in this study can not only advance the carbon mineralization technology but also contribute to the utilization and extraction of alkaline metals, as well as REEs, from other complex unconventional resources for the sustainable energy and material future.

Residential demand-side response (DSR) is a key strategy for meeting the challenges facing the UK electricity system. Leveraging residential flexibility should help to enhance system reliability, reduce carbon emissions, support the integration of renewables into the energy mix and deliver a lower-cost electricity system. However, the viability of residential DSR hinges on two critical factors: consumers will first need to switch to DSR programmes in sufficient numbers and then successfully respond by adjusting their consumption patterns accordingly. This thesis explores how to optimise the impact of residential DSR by examining the enablers and constraints of uptake and response. While participation is primarily encouraged through financial incentives, studies suggest that some consumers may be willing to participate for nonfinancial reasons. As such, this thesis also explores how environmental and pro-social motivations could be leveraged to help promote uptake and response. The thesis contributes to the knowledge on DSR by testing UK consumer preferences for different programme models through a large-scale online survey and identifying measures which could help to maximise uptake. It also explores the potential afforded by dynamic information-only programmes through a trial based on available wind generation. The thesis further makes a theoretical contribution by exploring how the Fogg Behaviour Model (FBM) can be used to conceptualise the enablers and constraints of uptake and response. By mapping these factors to the FBM's core components of ability, motivation and trigger, the model is refined as a tool for understanding how to optimise the impact of residential DSR. The research reveals that information-only DSR programmes may represent a significant untapped resource. Approximately 8% of a representative sample of UK consumers indicated a preference for this model over more conventional price-based programmes; while trial households succeeded in reducing electricity consumption by 9.9% on average when asked to consume less and increasing consumption by 4.4% on average when asked to consume more. These promising findings may help to inform policy and programme design as the UK energy system evolves towards a renewables-based future.

The demand for energy continues to grow but concerns over climate change means that conventional fossil fuels will eventually need to be replaced. The solution to the energy crisis will require a combination of both conventional energy sources with CO2 capture and renewable technologies. While many renewable technologies exist, it is not common that CO2 capture is incorporated into the process. Biomass is an ideal feed-stock for bio-energy production as it is CO2 neutral. Many thermochemical conversion technologies exist, but the Alkaline Thermal Treatment (ATT) reaction is particularly interesting because it combines conventional thermochemical conversion with CO2 capture in order to create a process that is potentially CO2 negative. By reacting biomass with a metal hydroxide, high purity H2 can be produced while simultaneously locking the carbon as a stable carbonate, which is a form of Bio-energy with Carbon Capture & Storage (BECCS). The H2 can then be used for applications ranging from Fischer-Tropsch synthesis to PEM fuel cells. Group I & II hydroxides were investigated for their ability to react with cellulose (a biomass model compound) in the ATT reaction scheme. Comparison between both groups indicated that NaOH and Ca(OH)2 were the best hydroxides from groups I & II respectively. However, the amount of H2 produced during the ATT of cellulose with Ca(OH)2 is considerably lower than with NaOH. A 10% Ni/ZrO2 catalyst was then added to increase the yield of H2 from the reaction between cellulose and Ca(OH)2. It was found that at 20% catalyst loading, the amount of H2 produced and the suppressed level of CO2 was similar to the ATT with NaOH. Several other catalytic metals were also investigated and found to have the following H2 production activity: Ni > Pt≈Pd > Co > Fe, Cu. Since Ni was the most active and has a considerably lower cost than noble metals it was chosen for additional studies. The ATT reaction in the presence of Ni has two distinct steps in the formation of H2 from cellulose. The presence of Ca(OH)2 enhances the formation of linear oxygenates from cellulose. These oxygenates are then reformed over the Ni-based catalyst to H2 and CO2, the latter of which is captured by Ca(OH)2 to form CaCO3. If either Ca(OH)2 or Ni was removed from the reaction, the yield H2 fell significantly. Although the reactants and the catalyst are all solid materials, they do not need to be physically mixed. The Ni-based catalyst produced H2 primarily through the reforming of gaseous species and therefore could be placed ex-situ of the cellulose and Ca(OH)2 mixture. However, placing the catalyst away from Ca(OH)2 prevented CO2 capture. In order to remedy this Ca(OH)2 was mixed with the Ni-based catalyst and mixture was placed ex-situ of pure cellulose. This created a process whereby cellulose could be decomposed thermally followed by a single gas-phase Alkaline Thermal Treatment (GATT) reforming step of the pyrolysis vapors to H2 with suppressed CO2.

This thesis proposes that internal combustion piston engines can help clear the way for a transformation in the energy, chemical, and refining industries that is akin to the transition computer technology experienced with the shift from large mainframes to small personal computers and large farms of individually small, modular processing units. This thesis provides a mathematical foundation, multi-dimensional optimizations, experimental results, an engine model, and a techno-economic assessment, all working towards quantifying the value of repurposing internal combustion piston engines for new applications in modular, small-scale technologies, particularly for energy and chemical engineering systems. Many chemical engineering and power generation industries have focused on increasing individual unit sizes and centralizing production. This "bigger is better" concept makes it difficult to evolve and incorporate change. Large systems are often designed with long lifetimes, incorporate innovation slowly, and necessitate high upfront investment costs. Breaking away from this cycle is essential for promoting change, especially change happening quickly in the energy and chemical engineering industries. The ability to evolve during a system's lifetime provides a competitive advantage in a field dominated by large and often very old equipment that cannot respond to technology change. This thesis specifically highlights the value of small, mass-manufactured internal combustion piston engines retrofitted to participate in non-automotive system designs. The applications are unconventional and stem first from the observation that, when normalized by power output, internal combustion engines are one hundred times less expensive than conventional, large power plants. This cost disparity motivated a look at scaling laws to determine if scaling across both individual unit size and number of units produced would predict the two order of magnitude difference seen here. For the first time, this thesis provides a mathematical analysis of scaling with a combination of both changing individual unit size and varying the total number of units produced. Different paths to meet a particular cumulative capacity are analyzed and show that total costs are path dependent and vary as a function of the unit size and number of units produced. The path dependence identified is fairly weak, however, and for all practical applications, the underlying scaling laws seem unaffected. This analysis continues to support the interest in pursuing designs built around small, modular infrastructure. Building on the observation that internal combustion engines are an inexpensive power-producing unit, the first optimization in this thesis focuses on quantifying the value of engine capacity committing to deliver power in the day-ahead electricity and reserve markets, specifically based on pricing from the New York Independent System Operator (NYISO). An optimization was written in Python to determine, based on engine cost, fuel cost, engine wear, engine lifetime, and electricity prices, when and how much of an engine's power should be committed to a particular energy market. The optimization aimed to maximize profit for the engine and generator (engine genset) system acting as a price-taker. The result is an annual profit on the order of \$30 per kilowatt. The most value in the engine genset is in its commitments to the spinning reserve market, where power is often committed but not always called on to deliver. This analysis highlights the benefits of modularity in energy generation and provides one example where the system is so inexpensive and short-lived, that the optimization views the engine replacement cost as a consumable operating expense rather than a capital cost. Having the opportunity to incorporate incremental technological improvements in a system's infrastructure throughout its lifetime allows introduction of new technology with higher efficiencies and better designs. An alternative to traditionally large infrastructure that locks in a design and today's state-of-the-art technology for the next 50 - 70 years, is a system designed to incorporate new technology in a modular fashion. The modular engine genset system used for power generation is one example of how this works in practice. The largest single component of this thesis is modeling, designing, retrofitting, and testing a reciprocating piston engine used as a compressor. Motivated again by the low cost of an internal combustion engine, this work looks at how an engine (which is, in its conventional form, essentially a reciprocating compressor) can be cost-effectively retrofitted to perform as a small-scale gas compressor. In the laboratory, an engine compressor was built by retrofitting a one-cylinder, 79 cc engine. Various retrofitting techniques were incorporated into the system design, and the engine compressor performance was quantified in each iteration. Because the retrofitted engine is now a power consumer rather than a power-producing unit, the engine compressor is driven in the laboratory with an electric motor. Experimentally, compressed air engine exhaust (starting at elevated inlet pressures) surpassed 650 psia (about 45 bar), which makes this system very attractive for many applications in chemical engineering and refining industries. A model of the engine compressor system was written in Python and incorporates experimentally-derived parameters to quantify gas leakage, engine friction, and flow (including backflow) through valves. The model as a whole was calibrated and verified with experimental data and is used to explore engine retrofits beyond what was tested in the laboratory. Along with the experimental and modeling work, a techno-economic assessment is included to compare the engine compressor system with state-of-the-art, commercially-available compressors. Included in the financial analysis is a case study where an engine compressor system is modeled to achieve specific compression needs. The result of the assessment is that, indeed, the low engine cost, even with the necessary retrofits, provides a cost advantage over incumbent compression technologies. Lastly, this thesis provides an algorithm and case study for another application of small-scale units in energy infrastructure, specifically in energy storage. This study focuses on quantifying the value of small-scale, onsite energy storage in shaving peak power demands. This case study focuses on university-level power demands. The analysis finds that, because peak power is so costly, even small amounts of energy storage, when dispatched optimally, can provide significant cost reductions. This provides another example of the value of small-scale implementations, particularly in energy infrastructure. While the study focuses on flywheels and batteries as the energy storage medium, engine gensets could also be used to deliver power and shave peak power demands. The overarching goal of this thesis is to introduce small-scale, modular infrastructure, with a particular focus on the opportunity to retrofit and repurpose inexpensive, mass-manufactured internal combustion engines in new and unconventional applications. The modeling and experimental work presented in this dissertation show very compelling results for engines incorporated into both energy generation infrastructure and chemical engineering industries via compression technologies. The low engine cost provides an opportunity to add retrofits whilst remaining cost competitive with the incumbent technology. This work supports the claim that modular infrastructure, built on the indivisible unit of an internal combustion engine, can revolutionize many industries by providing a low-cost mechanism for rapid change and promoting small-scale designs.