Thesis (Ph.D)--Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2009. / Committee Chair: Chernoff, Yury; Committee Member: Bommarius, Andreas; Committee Member: Doyle, Donald; Committee Member: Lobachev, Kirill; Committee Member: Yi, Soojin. Part of the SMARTech Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Collection.

[URE3] priono indukcija priklauso nuo Ras/PKA signalinio kelio aktyvumo. Galima šio kelio įtaka [PSI+] priono formavimuisi gali būti numanoma iš natyvaus Sup35 baltymo struktūros. Šio baltymo struktūroje yra nustatytos kelios menamos PKA fosforilinimo vietos. Siekiant patikrinti šią galimybę buvo atliktas trijų, Ras/PKA signalinio kelio aktyvumu besiskiriančių, izogeninių kamienų – 6-α‘1-NB13-, 12-α‘1-NB13-, 7-α‘1-NB13 - [PSI+] priono indukcijos dažnio įvertinimas. Rezultatai parodė, kad terpėje esant turtingam azoto šaltiniui 6-α‘1-NB13- kamieno ląstelėse padidinta CYR1, BCY1 ir Ras2Val19 genų raiška sumažina [PSI+] priono indukcijos dažnį. Tuo tarpu, terpėje esant neturtingam azoto šaltiniui 7-α‘1-NB13 kamieno ląstelėse padidinta BCY1 geno raiška padidina [PSI+] priono indukcijos dažnį. Todėl galima daryti išvadą, kad [PSI+] priono indukcijos dažnis gali priklausyti nuo Ras/PKA signalinio kelio aktyvumo. / [URE3] prion induction depends on the activity of the Ras/PKA signal transduction pathway. Possible influence of this pathway on the formation of [PSI+] prion could be predicted from the structure of the native Sup35 protein. Several possible phosphorylation sites are known in the structure of this protein. In order to check this possibility analysis of prion induction frequency of three isogenic mutant strains – 6-α‘1-NB13-, 12-α‘1-NB13-, 7-α‘1-NB13 – different in the activity of the Ras/PKA signal transduction pathway, was performed. Results showed that in the presence of rich nitrogen source in cells of the strain 6-α‘1-NB13 the increased expression of CYR1, BCY1 and Ras2Val19 genes decreases the frequency of [PSI+] prion induction. Instead, in the presence of poor nitrogen source in cells of the strain 7-α‘1-NB13 the increased expression of BCY1 gene increases the frequency of [PSI+] prion induction. So, it is possible to make a conclusion that the frequency of induction of the [PSI+] prion depends on the activity of the Ras/PKA signal transduction pathway.

No description available.

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) recognizing different regions of PrP are potential tools in the study of prion diseases and immunotherapy. We used shuffled recombinant prion protein containing elk and mouse PrP as antigen to produce monoclonal antibodies in mice. We found that mAb 5C6 mapped to a discontinuous epitope comprised of amino acid 132 and 158 (mouse numbering). Monoclonal anibody 9E9 which maps to a unique N-terminal epitope at amino acid preferentially recognized cervid PrP. In contrast, the epitope of mAb 9H9 is located in the C-terminus and only reacted with mouse and hamster. The epitope for mAb 7H11 appears to be affected by the glycosylation of PrP and by the presence or absence of the disulfide bond. To confirm the epitopes of these mAbs, we constructed elk and mouse mutants both with and without reactivity to 5C6 and 9E9. We then used these mutants to investigate the effect of each epitope on the conversion of PrPC to PrPsc. In one approach to map the epitopes of newly-generated monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), we generated a series of contiguous ten amino acids deletion constructs spanning amino acids 107 to 230 and expressed these recombinant proteins in mammalian cells (RK13) or bacteria. Using Western blotting, all deletion constructs could be recognized with antibodies to the extreme C-terminus of PrP, or the N-terminal region upstream of the structured globular domain of PrP. However, mAb 5C6 failed to react with all internally deleted PrP constructs expressed in mammalian cells, and to a lesser extent bacterially produced mutant recombinant proteins. We confirmed the surprising result using the well-defined antibodies 6H4 and D18, which recognize epitopes in the same internal region as 5C6. Our results suggest the formation of an ultra-stable, SDS-resistant conformation in PrP harboring deletions mutations in the globular domain of PrP. We hypothesize that epitope burying within this stable conformation(s) precludes mAb recognition by 5C6, 6H4 and D18. It will be of extreme interest to determine the relationship of this previously undefined PrP conformation to the pathogenic process of PrP conformational change.

No description available.

Prion diseases are curious neurodegenerative diseases characterized by the conversion of a cellular protein, PrPC, into an infectious isoform, PrPSc. One of the earliest hallmarks of disease and concurrent with prion deposition, is the activation of the brain’s principal immune effector cells, microglia. In prion disease, activated microglia synthesize fairly low levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, presumably to ameliorate the severe pathology that can arise in host tissue as a result of an acute inflammatory response. The specific stimuli and signaling pathways that lead to this modulation of function are as yet unknown. However, the involvement of miRNAs, a recently identified class of regulatory molecules, is likely. Recently, miR-146a was found to be upregulated in the brains of prion infected mice. In addition, its expression was found to be enriched in cells of microglial origin. It was hypothesized that, given the immunomodulatory role ascribed to miR-146a in macrophages, upregulation of miR-146a may function to attenuate the microglial immune response to prion infection. The first objective was to identify inflammatory related miRNAs associated with prion disease in microglia. Using Taqman Low Density Arrays, allowing for the detection of hundreds of miRNAs at once, the miRNAs of microglia treated with inflammatory agonists were profiled. The miRNA profile of activated microglia was found to be similar to that of macrophages. Furthermore, among the miRNAs profiled, miR-146a and miR-155 were the most highly induced and persistently expressed over 24 hours. The second objective was to investigate miR-146a induction. Therefore, microglia were treated with various agonists and miR-146a expression was determined using Taqman miR-146a assays. Although treatment with a PrP-mimic did not induce miR-146a expression, stimulation of TLRs 1, 2, 4, and 5, resulted in significant over-expression similar to what has been described previously. Moreover, in contrast to the rapid and transient induction of inflammatory mediators, miR-146a follows alternate kinetics functioning to prolong the dampening of the innate immune response following activation via TLR4 and TLR2. By employing a functional proteomic strategy, the third objective was to identify miR-146a regulated proteins. First, miR-146a expression was manipulated using miR-146a mimics and miR-146a inhibitors. Secondly, the functional model was validated by confirming decreased expression of IL6 by ELISA in miR-146a over-expressing microglia cells. Lastly, using Tandem Mass Tag labels to discriminate between treatment group (miR-146a mimic and TLR2 agonist) and control group (scrambled-miR and TLR2 agonist), the effect of miR-146a on the proteome was determined. In total, 172 proteins were identified as being miR-146a regulated and gene ontology assignment resulted in an over-representation of proteins involved in cellular dynamics capable of altering the activation state of microglia. After filtering for bioinformatically predicted targets and those implicated in a similar genomic study, it was decided to further investigate proteins ARF6, RhoA and NOS2 based on their role in modulating the phagocytic potential of microglia. The final objective was to validate miR-146a putative direct targets identified from the proteomics analysis. Luciferase expression of the 3’UTR of targets upon transfection with miR-146a were determined. Based on luciferase analysis, NOS2 appears to be directly targeted by miR-146a and this was also confirmed by western blot. While production of NOS2 by microglia under an acute activation state serves to support and protect CNS homeostasis, chronic expression of this factor can lead to neurotoxicity. Therefore, miR-146a appears to have an overarching role in altering microglial activation during prion disease thus protecting neurons from bystander damage. Taken together, these results suggest that miR-146a could play an important role in the prion disease process by specifically attenuating the microglial induced immune response. Therefore, manipulation of miR-146a may represent a novel therapeutic strategy. Furthermore, given that miR-146a de-regulation has been observed in other neurodegenerative diseases, these results may well extend beyond the realm of prion disease. Lastly, although practical limitations relating to the sensitivity of the comparative proteomics methodology meant that it alone were not sufficient to identify miRNA targets, an integrated approach that takes into consideration genomic and bioinformatic strategies is most promising.

S. cerevisiae Sup35p inhabits two metastable states: functional translation termination factor; and prion-like aggregate [PSI+], which propagates by converting soluble Sup35p to its own misfolded form. Once initiated, Sup35p polymerization in [PSI+] cells is spontaneous, but [PSI+] prion inheritance depends on the Hsp104p disaggregase. To identify Hsp104-interacting sequences, Sup35p was subjected to a systematic deletion screen. [PSI+] maintenance by mutant Sup35p was assessed in both presence and absence of plasmid-encoded WT Sup35p in haploid sup35 cells. Large deletions abolished [PSI+], implying perturbations of prion structure, while others imparted [PSI+]-dependent toxicity. Removal of a single 25aa segment destabilised [PSI+] inheritance, resulting in enhanced rates of prion loss. This is consistent with the expected prion propagation defect in response to reduced Hsp104p interaction. However, several mutants containing this 25aa segment share the destabilised prion phenotype, suggesting chaperone/prion interactions are strongly context-dependent, and no one Sup35p region is solely responsible for Hsp104p recognition.

S. cerevisiae Sup35p inhabits two metastable states: functional translation termination factor; and prion-like aggregate [PSI+], which propagates by converting soluble Sup35p to its own misfolded form. Once initiated, Sup35p polymerization in [PSI+] cells is spontaneous, but [PSI+] prion inheritance depends on the Hsp104p disaggregase. To identify Hsp104-interacting sequences, Sup35p was subjected to a systematic deletion screen. [PSI+] maintenance by mutant Sup35p was assessed in both presence and absence of plasmid-encoded WT Sup35p in haploid sup35 cells. Large deletions abolished [PSI+], implying perturbations of prion structure, while others imparted [PSI+]-dependent toxicity. Removal of a single 25aa segment destabilised [PSI+] inheritance, resulting in enhanced rates of prion loss. This is consistent with the expected prion propagation defect in response to reduced Hsp104p interaction. However, several mutants containing this 25aa segment share the destabilised prion phenotype, suggesting chaperone/prion interactions are strongly context-dependent, and no one Sup35p region is solely responsible for Hsp104p recognition.

Several lines of evidence suggest that the expression of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) is altered with age and in sporadic Alzheimer’s disease, however, published results have been contradictory. Furthermore, a relationship between the expression of PrPC and Tau has started to emerge. We have revealed a specific relationship between the expression of PrPC and Tau in neuroblastoma cell lines and transgenic mouse models. In addition, we identified that the expression levels of PrPC are reduced in multiple brain regions following the progression of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. Furthermore, the reduction in PrPC expression significantly correlated with the reduction in Tau expression and coincided with an increase in Tau pathology. In addition, data from neuroblastoma cell lines implicated the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchor and in part the localisation of PrPC to lipid rafts in mediating these alterations to Tau. We hypothesise that the reduction in PrPC expression reflects a primary mechanism in Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis and indirectly triggers the reduction in Tau expression which subsequently contributes to neuronal destabilisation and disruption to neuronal function. Soluble oligomeric forms of amyloid-beta are the primary pathogenic species in Alzheimer’s disease and strongly correlate with the presence and severity of cognitive decline. PrPC acts as a high affinity neuronal receptor for amyloid-beta oligomers and triggers pathogenic signaling cascades which induce synaptic impairment and further exacerbate neuronal destabilisation. We demonstrated that Flotillin-1 and the lipid raft localisation of PrPC are essential for the binding of amyloid-beta oligomers to PrPC. Furthermore, the metabotropic glutamate receptor, mGluR5 plays a pivotal role in the aberrant signaling of PrPC, and this PrPC/mGluR5 complex provides a mechanistic link between extracellular amyloid-beta oligomers and intracellular Tau phosphorylation, by Fyn kinase, Pyk2 and possibly by inactivation of the protein phosphatase, PP2A. Considering there is now strong evidence that Tau is the mediator of amyloid-beta induced toxicity, the reduction in Tau levels mediated by PrPC may be a protective mechanism. amyloid-beta oligomers interact with a multitude of neuronal receptors in addition to PrPC. It is likely that activation of multiple receptor complexes and signalling cascades are responsible for synaptic impairment and Tau phosphorylation induced by amyloid-beta, however, these complexes remain to be fully determined. Investigating amyloid-beta oligomer induced Tau phosphorylation in vitro has proven challenging, however, we suggest that a functional, mature, neuronal model is necessary to induce the complex mechanisms linking extracellular amyloid-beta oligomers and the phosphorylation of intracellular Tau. A greater understanding of the complex relationship between amyloid-beta, PrPC and Tau will aid in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying Alzheimer’s disease and in the discovery of novel therapeutic targets for this progressive neurodegenerative disease.

Scrapie é uma doença neurodegenerativa infecciosa que afeta ovinos e caprinos, o qual está relacionada a uma alteração conformacional da proteína priônica, que leva a deposição e agregação da proteína no sistema nervoso central. A predisposição a infecção pelo agente príon está associado a polimorfismos de nucleotídeos únicos no gene da proteína priônica. Os principais polimorfismos relacionados à infecção estão presentes nos códons 136, 154 e 171, sendo o genótipo VRQ o mais suscetível e o ARR o genótipo mais resistente. O presente estudo teve como objetivo identificar os polimorfismos de nucleotídeos únicos em ovinos das raças Suffolk, Dorper e Santa Inês, provenientes de surtos de scrapie clássico e de rebanhos livre de scrapie, os quais os proprietários estavam dispostos a colaborar com o projeto. O primeiro trabalho analisou polimorfismos de nucleotídeos únicos em 15 códons do gene da proteína priônica em um rebanho Suffolk afetado com scrapie clássico no Brasil. Dos 15 códons analisados, 3 apresentaram polimorfismos (136, 143 e 171). O códon 171 apresentou o maior número de polimorfismos, os quais foram encontradas todas as formas alélicas. Quando avaliado os grupos de risco, cerca de 96% do rebanho pertenceu aos grupos 1 a 3 (risco muito baxi a moderado). O segundo trabalho relatou o desenvolvimento da técnica de PCR em tempo real, baseado em sondas TaqMan, para a identificação de polimorfismos nos códons 136, 154 e 171 e sua aplicabilidade em rebanhos brasileiros. Um total de 142 amostras foram analisadas por PCR em tempo real. Ao comparar os resultados do PCR em tempo real com o sequenciamento, 100% das amostras foram idênticas. Para o códon 136, a maioria dos ovinos apresentou o genótipo AA. Para o códon 154, o genótipo RR foi o mais frequente, e para o códon 171, os genótipos mais frequentes foram QQ e QR. O terceiro trabalho descreve a caracterização de três surtos de scrapie clássico em ovinos da raça Dorper, em diferentes regiões do sul do Brasil. Os surtos ocorreram nos anos de 2011 a 2013, sendo que no segundo e no terceiro foram identificados ovinos do primeiro caso. Além disso, foi analisada a associação de scrapie com a genotipagem do gene da proteína priônica em ovinos presentes nos três rebanhos. No total, 22 ovinos foram positivos no teste de imuno-histoquímica, sendo que 4 deles apresentaram sinais clínicos da doença. Em todos os estudos, presentes as três raças analisadas, foi possível evidenciar a presença de ovinos, na sua maioria, geneticamente suscetíveis a infecção, pois a maioria pertenceu ao grupo de risco 3, considerado moderado. / Scrapie is an infectious neurodegenerative disease affecting sheep and goats. This is related to an altered conformational of the prion protein (PrPSc) that leads to the deposition and aggregation of protein in the central nervous system. The predisposition to prion infection agent is associated with single nucleotide polymorphisms in the prion protein gene. The mostly polymorphisms related with infection are present in codons 136, 154 and 171, being more susceptible genotype VRQ and ARR more resistant genotype. This study aimed to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms in sheep breeds Suffolk, Dorper and Santa Ines, from outbreaks of classical scrapie flocks and free scrapie flocks, which the owners were willing to collaborate with the project. The first article analyzed single nucleotide polymorphisms in 15 codons of the prion protein gene in a Suffolk sheep affected with classical scrapie in Brazil. Of the 15 codons analyzed, 3 showed polymorphisms (136, 143 and 171). Codon 171 showed the greatest number of polymorphisms, which were found all allelic forms. When assessed risk groups, about 96% of the herd belonged to groups 1 to 3 (very baxi to moderate risk). The second article reported the development of PCR real time based on TaqMan probes for the identification of polymorphisms in codons 136, 154 and 171 and their applicability in Brazilian herds. A total of 142 samples were analyzed by real-time PCR. When comparing the results of real time PCR with the sequencing of the samples were 100% identical. For codon 136, the majority of the sheep had the AA genotype. For codon 154, the RR genotype was the most frequent, and the codon 171, the most common genotypes were QQ and QR. The third article describes the characterization of three outbreaks of classical scrapie in Dorper sheep, in different regions of southern Brazil. The outbreaks occurred in the years 2011-2013, and the second and third were identified sheep of the first case. Furthermore, it was analyzed its association with genotyping prion protein gene in sheep present the three herds. In total, 22 sheep were positive in immunohistochemical testing, and 4 of them showed clinical signs of disease. In all studies, presents three races analyzed, it was possible to demonstrate the presence of sheep, mostly genetically susceptible to infection because the majority belonged to the risk group 3, considered moderate.