A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, Johannesburg, South Africa 2017 / Concerns exist over the continual decline of marula trees (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) as a result of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) impact and a lack of recruitment and regeneration. One strategy of protecting adult marula trees is the usage of elephant mitigation methods. This study took place in Jejane Private Nature Reserve (JPNR), a protected area which recently opened up to the Greater Kruger National Park and had not had elephants in over 100 years. The aim of the study was to investigate the changes to the marula population structure in JPNR three years after the migration of elephants to the area due to fence removal, and to test whether African honeybees (Apis mellifera subsp. scutellata) could be used as a mitigation method for elephant impact on marula trees. A previous size-class survey had been done on a sample of JPNR’s marula population in 2009, prior to the fence removal in 2013. A resurvey of these trees was used to assess the elephant-induced impact and mortality levels on the marula trees and to compare these levels to previously recorded impact and mortality levels on marula trees in the Kruger National Park (KNP). Marula seed predation levels and seedling recruitment were also assessed to address recruitment concerns. The resurveyed marula population had declined by 23.8% post-elephant migration, with the highest annual mortality rates (AMR) and impact scores recorded for trees in the 5 - 11 m height classes. Impact scores on marula trees in JPNR were higher than impact scores recorded on KNP marula trees. Only two marula seedlings were found across all transects, with evidence of high seed predation on marula endocarps. JPNR displayed an adult-dominated marula population with a lack of regeneration, possibly due to a lack of fire which has increased available shelter for seed predators such as small mammals. African honeybees were then used to investigate their effectiveness as an elephant mitigation method and to compare this method against wire-netting (a method experimentally used to prevent ring-barking by elephants). Fifty active beehives were hung from 50 marula trees, with another 50 dummy (inactive) beehives hung from branches on the opposite ends of each beehive tree’s main stem. Fifty additional marula trees were wire-netted and a further 50 were used as control trees. Elephant impact on all 150 trees was measured prior to the addition of treatments and post-treatment addition for nine months. 54% of the control trees received some form of elephant impact, in comparison to 28% of the wire-netted trees and only 2% of the beehive trees. Wire-netting protected marula trees against bark-stripping, but did not prevent elephants from breaking branches. Beehives proved highly efficient at mitigating all forms of elephant impact. The financial cost and maintenance required for the beehive mitigation method is greater than that of wire- netting, but the beehives can provide honey and pollination services as an additional benefit. The results of this study illustrate that African honeybees can be used as an effective non-lethal mitigation method for elephant impact on marula trees and are a viable strategy to reduce human-elephant conflict in South Africa’s protected areas. / MT 2017

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Knowledge of the feeding ecology of an organism helps us to better understand predator-prey relationships and aspects of species biology, ecology and life-history traits. Understanding the feeding ecologies of snakes is challenging because snakes are generally secretive and often difficult to observe when foraging in the wild. Traditionally, studies attempting to quantify the diets of snakes relied on observing direct predation events, dissecting dead specimens, or microscopy of gut and stomach contents to identify prey species. However, investigations using traditional methods can result in an incomplete understanding of prey utilised by particular snakes. Analysis of prey DNA in snake faeces is a useful method to obtain accurate information on diet.

M.A. (Environmental Management) / Reptiles are internationally one of the least studied taxa compared to all other vertebrates, and even less is known about the large arachnids. This proves problematic as the environmental management of reptile and large arachnid species is generally neglected or only partially considered in environmental impact studies and conservation. Consequently, there is a considerable lack of knowledge on the ecological requirements (dietary and habitat requirements) of reptiles and invertebrates. Furthermore, the environmental management of reptiles and large arachnids in the Leeuspruit Private Nature Reserve is restricted as no data exists on the assemblage of these taxa in the study area. A model based approach was used to examine the ecology of species of reptiles and large arachnids (scorpions and baboon spiders) that were found in the Leeuspruit Private Nature Reserve during this study. The study proposes a baseline analysis between the species found in the study area and the suitability and availability of the ecological requirements necessary to their survival. The ecological requirements of each species were noted and utilised as the variable input categories in a scoring model developed for this study. Each species identified in the study area was allocated points from the scoring model based on favourable ecological requirements for that particular species. Field work was conducted in the Leeuspruit Private Nature Reserve in the northern Free State Province (March 2012 – March 2013) to do a survey on reptile and large arachnid diversity and to record the habitats in which they occur. A list of the reptiles and large arachnids found in the Leeuspruit Private Nature Reserve was compiled. One of the significant results which came to light during this study is that the diversity and abundance of reptiles and large arachnids are dependent on the availability and diversity of habitats with the necessary ecological requirements for those species. For example, the distribution of snake species was largely dependent on the abundance of amphibians and birds for food which coincided with a seasonal wetland in the study area; while rocks and detritus proved imperative to the seasonal functionality of the reptiles.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:29:44Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseAS.pdf: 1169927 bytes, checksum: 6183f668fbb98ca0b2eab21f04500fb6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2002-12-13 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / The cocoa production region of southern Bahia harbors the largest fragments of Atlantic Forest in the State of Bahia, possessing a high frequency of endemics and species richness, and being presently considered a priority area for biodiversity conservation. Nevertheless, the process of implementing Conservation Units in the region is not keeping up with the rate of change in local land use. Among the strategies of non-governmental organizations to help in the conservation of the Una Biological Reserve (the largest forest fragment in the cocoa production region) is the creation of Private Nature Reserves. In the present work, the process of implementation of the Ecoparque do Una Private Nature Reserve was assessed. The Ecoparque do Una is a 383 ha area contiguous to the Una Biological Reserve (UBR), and is intended to be a model for sustainable development and natural resource utilization. The analysis of the social and economic relations between the Ecoparque and its neighboring properties indicated that both areas lack economic integration. However, employees at the Ecoparque are all native to the region, a situation that contributes for the Ecoparque to be more easily accepted by the local community. The number of visitors to the area is increasing monthly from 1998 to present, but the public is constituted typically by people coming from other regions. This limits the process of comprehension, by people from the cocoa production region, of the importance of the Ecoparque for conservation of natural resources. The cost of the entry ticket to the Ecoparque was pointed by tourism operators as the greatest barrier for marketing the Ecoparque as a product, restricting the aggregate value of tourism in the region. In spite not being yet an economically sustainable touristic product, because its expenditures are higher than the direct incomes from public visitation, this model of development is in process of becoming sustainable. All the environmental factors considered, the Ecoparque is meeting the requisites of a sustainable enterprise with social responsibility, environmental conservation and economic development. / A região cacaueira do Sul da Bahia abriga hoje os maiores fragmentos de Floresta Atlântica no Estado, com elevado endemismo e grande riqueza de espécies, sendo considerada atualmente como uma das áreas prioritárias para a conservação da biodiversidade. Entretanto a implantação de Unidades de Conservação na região não está acompanhando as mudanças atuais na dinâmica do uso da terra. Uma das estratégias utilizadas por organizações não-governamentais para auxiliar a conservação da Reserva Biológica de Una (maior fragmento florestal da região cacaueira) está sendo a criação de reservas privadas em seu entorno. Este trabalho avaliou a dinâmica da implantação de uma Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural, o Ecoparque de Una, área com 383 ha, contígua à Reserva Biológica de Una e que tem por objetivo servir como modelo de desenvolvimento sustentável para a utilização dos recursos naturais. As relações sociais e econômicas entre a Reserva e as propriedades lindeiras foram analisadas, mostrando que ainda não há integração econômica entre estas; porém, todos os funcionários são nativos da região, o que colabora para a aceitação da Reserva pela comunidade local. A visitação pública na área está aumentando em todos os meses, desde 1998 até o momento, porém, ainda com público caracterizado por visitantes de outras regiões, o que limita o processo de compreensão, pelos habitantes da região cacaueira, da importância da conservação de seus recursos naturais. O valor cobrado para ingressar na área da Reserva foi apontado pelas operadoras de turismo como o grande obstáculo para a comercialização do produto Ecoparque , o que restringe a agregação de valor ao turismo da região. Apesar de ainda não ser um produto turístico economicamente sustentável, pois suas despesas não são cobertas pela receita direta da visitação pública, pode-se afirmar que este modelo de desenvolvimento está caminhando para sua sustentabilidade econômica. Considerando-se todos os fatores ambientais analisados, a Reserva está cumprindo as premissas de uma atividade sustentável, com responsabilidade social, conservação ambiental e desenvolvimento econômico.