Research on figure-ground organization focused primarily on identifying cues that are used to establish regions as figure or ground. Recently, others have demonstrated behavioral consequences of figure-ground assignment, including speeded responses and higher accuracy for figures. However, other outcomes of figure-ground assignment have been demonstrated. For example, figures' spatial resolution is enhanced for figures relative to grounds. Still, the consequences of figure-ground assignment can extend beyond spatial processing to other domains, including temporal processing. To investigate the consequences of figure-ground assignment for temporal processing, I first examined whether targets could be perceived as appearing temporally earlier on figures than on grounds (i.e., prior entry effect). My results suggest that figural regions are available to perceptual level processes sooner than grounds. Upon confirming a prior-entry-like effect for figures, I then examined other temporal processing differences between figures and grounds. Specifically, I demonstrated that targets presented on figures are perceived as offsetting later than targets appearing on grounds, suggesting that figures receive extended perceptual level processing relative to grounds. Consequently, I found that extended processing of figures degrades temporal resolution compared to ground regions. Finally, I presented a computational model that captures the temporal processing effects of figure-ground assignment, demonstrating that these effects can arise from a single architecture.

The analysis of the pre-choice behaviors in an operant conditioning task led to the observation that pigeons often produced anticipatory pecks that were directed at the location of their next response. Despite the possible utility of this behavior for understanding basic behavioral processes in animal learning and the widespread use of touchscreen displays to present pictorial stimuli, there has been little evaluation of the spatial distribution of touchscreen responding. So, we sought to investigate the mechanisms that account for this anticipatory behavior, whether this behavior changes over time, and how general this phenomenon might be. To answer these and other related questions, we report in a series of eleven studies and two re-analyzed datasets a detailed characterization of this anticipatory discrimination behavior in both pigeons and rats. In the first chapter, we review relevant literature related to the phenomenon of anticipatory behavior and prospective coding. In the second chapter, we outline a basic three-link discrimination paradigm, which we adapted from a procedure originally developed to study spatial anticipation in autoshaping. This simple procedure afforded us the ability to measure responses during a task that engages prospective processing. In the third chapter, we evaluate two possible mechanistic explanations for this anticipatory behavior; namely, that animals are motivated to produce anticipatory responses because of a shorter temporal route to reinforcement or because of the spatial and temporal contiguity of the stimuli used in the task. In the fourth chapter, we evaluate several spatial parameters that might importantly influence the distribution of these anticipatory responses. In the fifth chapter, we re-evaluate data from two previously published projects to assess the generality of the observed phenomenon and to evaluate the possibility that the anticipatory responses are a fractional reproduction of the terminal response. Finally, in the sixth chapter, we discuss the implications for the presented work in several fields. We also sketch a computational framework for the presented data using a Dynamic Field Theory model, attempting to show how the prospective representation of an upcoming spatial location might guide anticipatory behavior.

The goals of the study were threefold: to examine, in a sample of Hindi-speaking Indian women, (1) the internal consistency reliability and psychometric validity of a broad assessment of intimate partner aggression (IPA) that previously has been used in multiple languages in the public-health domain; (2) the extent to which the trait structure of a widely used personality measure conforms in this sample to the personality structure that has been found in many other cultural and geographic groupings and across many languages; and (3) relations between personality traits and the experience of IPA, including physical, psychological and sexual IPA. A sample of rural, north Indian women were recruited and asked to complete several psychological measures, including one of personality and one of their experience as a recipient of IPA. The data suggest that the structure of IPA, but not personality, in this sample is consistent with that commonly found in western samples. Reasons for the lack of replication in personality structure are discussed. Nonetheless, the relations between personality and IPA domains found in this sample suggest that personality is related to these women's experience of IPA, but in ways that differ somewhat from western samples.

The CPI (California Psychological Inventory) was administered to 395 high school students to determine if personality differences exist between rural and urban adolescents in Utah. Of those tested, 219 were selected from three rural schools and 176 were selected from three urban schools. Ten of the eighteen individual scales of the CPI showed differences between rural and urban students at the P<.01 level and two more showed differences at the P<.05 level. Two of the four classes of scales showed differences at the P<.01 level, and the other two classes showed differences significant at the P<.05 level. In each case where significant differences were found, the differences favored the urban students. The results of this study indicate that the urban students in Utah tend to have more positive personality characteristics than the rural students.

Incoming freshman students are confronted early in their college career with the problem of selecting a program of study that fits their needs, capacities and interests. Counselors and advisors have found that a large number of students do not give prior deliberation to the selection of a major field of study. For the most part, students use a trial and error method in making their choices. That is, their choice is a result of success in previous class work. Although some effort is being made by educational personnel to resolve this problem, a large amount of objective research remains to be done. The more we are able to discover about abilities and conditions necessary for successful achievements, the more we will be able to do in helping students make the best use of their particular talents. Each university and college must accept its part in establishing methods that can better help the educational counselor and adviser in placement activities.

Students respond to instructor characteristics. Instructor approachability is one such characteristic that is often discussed yet inconsistently defined in the literature. The purpose of this study was to construct and validate a new measure, the Instructor Approachability Scale. The present study used a rationally derived process to generate a list of items that are representative of instructor approachability. Factor analysis was conducted to establish psychometrics for the scale. Regression analyses were then conducted to examine the impact of instructor approachability on several outcomes, including students’ help-seeking attitudes, satisfaction with the course, and mastery of course content. Several significant main effects were detected, indicating that instructor approachability impacted: help-seeking attitudes and satisfaction with the course. While instructor approachability was not significant in predicting student learning outcome directly, it was indirectly predictive through help-seeking attitude, which suggests that the instructor can enable student access to resources, but students are ultimately responsible in translating the resources into results. These findings and implications are also discussed.

This study attempts to test the effectiveness of two treatment modalities for adolescent residents of the Intermediate Care Facility at St. Anthony, Idaho. The study was conducted at the Intermediate Care Facility (ICF) at St. Anthony, Idaho. The St. Anthony ICF is a separate yet distinct part of the Youth Services Center in the same area. The participants of this study were 20 emotionally disturbed adolescents who were randomly assigned to two treatment groups (10 participants in each group). The participants of both groups were shown to be homogeneous with regards to severity of emotional disturbance, family background, race, sex, age, and offense leading to institutionalization. Both groups of subjects were observed for 7 days during both base line and data line observation periods by pairs of trained observers. These observers monitored the frequency of occurrence of nine specific misbehaviors which fell into three general categories of behavior, i.e., category one: passive-withdrawal, category two: overt-hostility, and, category three: manipulation. The reliability between pairs of observers for base line and data line observation period ranged between .82 and .98. During the 6-week treatment phase of the study, one group of subjects (E1 group) received intensive individual, group, recreational and vocational therapy, while the second experimental group (E2 group) received intensive individual, group, recreational and vocational therapy coupled with self monitoring plus a 5-day training in the recognition of inappropriate behaviors. Both the E1 and E2 group participants showed a significant overall decrease in the frequency of misbehaviors for all three categories combined when each group was considered separately on base line and data line observations. However, when the three general categories were considered separately for each experimental group, the E1 group participants showed a significant reduction in only one of the three categories--category one, passive-withdrawal. Whereas, the E2 group participants showed a significant reduction in the frequency of misbehavior in all three categories when base line and data line frequencies were compared. When the E1 group is compared with the E2 group for the greatest amount of reduction of misbehaviors after treatment, the treatment modality applied to the E2 group was significantly more effective in reducing the frequency of misbehavior than was the treatment modality which was applied to the E1 group participants. The results of this study seem to indicate that for this sample, a treatment modality which combines intensive individual, group, recreational and vocational therapy with self-monitoring plus training in the recognition of inappropriate behaviors is significantly more effective in reducing the frequency of misbehaviors than is a treatment which employs only intensive individual, group, recreational and vocational therapy techniques.

The telephone crisis intervention service at Utah State University (Help-Line) was evaluated in order to make the training program accountable and to produce recommendations for improvement in volunteer training. Help-Line training teaches a "non-directive" counseling model and incorporates experiential sensitivity type exercises, didactic discussion, and role playing. Help-Line volunteers were assessed by two methods. The first was a pretest-posttest control group design. Training was the independent variable and the discrimination of core conditions (as measured by the Crisis Center Discrimination Index) and the communication of empathy (as measured by the Crisis Center Communication Index) were the dependent variables . The Indexes are patterned after the work of Robert Carkhuff and utilize his 5-point rating system. The trainees scored significantly better than the control group on both the discrimination task (.01 level) and the connnunication task (.05 level). The second method was a comparison of the volunteers on the variables of Conceptual Level as postulated by Harvey, Hunt, and Schroder, and the decision of the volunteers regarding whether or not to work on Help-Line after training. Conceptual Level was measured by the Conceptual Systems Test (form 71) categorizing subjects according to cognitive structure and beliefs into one of four Conceptual Levels (CL): CL 1--concrete-proestablishment, CL 2--concrete-antiestablishrnent, CL 3--abstract-dependent, and CL 4--abstract-independent. Both trainers were CL 4 individuals and the interaction between subject and trainer is unknown. A comparison of CL 1, CL 3, and CL 4 subjects (the test identified no CL 2 members) on the Crisis Center Discrimination Index produced no significant differences. A comparison of CL 1, CL 3, and CL 4 subjects on the Crisis Center Colillllunication Index showed no significant differences on the pretest scores but a significant difference (.05 level) on the post test scores, CL 4 subjects scoring significantly higher than CL 3 and CL 1 subjects. No significant differences in the comunication of empathy were found between CL 1 and CL 3 subjects. A comparison of those subjects who elected to work on Help-Line after training and those who elected not to work on Help-Line after training revealed no significant differences on either the discrimination or communication indexes. A comparison of those subjects who elected to work on Help-Line after training and those who elected not to work on Help-Line after training with respect to Conceptual Level was made. Chi-square tests showed no significant differences for CL 1 subjects choosing to work or not to work, significance at the .05 level favoring CL 3 subjects choosing to work, and significance at the .05 level favoring CL 4 subjects choosing not to work.

The present study investigated the "Draw-A-Male-And-A-Female" test to find if this variation of the "Draw-A-Person" test was a valid measure of male -female relationship variables, i.e., compatibility, happiness, warmth, and interpersonal anxiety and conflict. Two groups varying with respect to relationship (married group vs divorced group) were tested. A high school group was also tested. Three psychologists rated the drawings into a positive or a negative relationship group. If the male and female figures in the drawing had the appearance of warmth or pleasantness between each other, seemed compatible, and looked free from interpersonal anxiety or conflict, the picture was placed in the positive relationship group. The pictures containing opposite characteristics were placed in the negative group. The average inter-rater agreement was 72.9% This was a significant departure from chance at the .001 level of confidence,

The purpose of this study was to see how suicidal individuals in therapy as compared to nonsuicidal individuals in therapy characteristically report their relations to other people in interpersonal interactions. One hundred and nineteen individuals were referred to the study by his or her psychotherapist associated with the participating mental health centers in the Salt Lake City and Logan, Utah, vicinities. The following measures were administered to all individuals: the FIRO-B, Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior, two scales, Sociability and Tolerance, from the CPI, California Psychological Inventory, and a brief biographical questionnaire composed of age, sex, marital status, education, religion, and time in therapy. A two-way analysis of variance with factors of suicide and marital status and a three-way analysis of variance with factors of suicide, sex, and religion were used to test the eight hypotheses. An additional test, the Scheffe', was also utilized on the data of hypothesis 3 when ANOVA indicated significant differences among the religious group means. The six scales of interpersonal needs as obtained from the FIRO-B and the two CPI scales were correlated '\\ith age, highest education attained, and length of time in therapy using the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation. It was found that no significant differences exist for suicidal and nonsuicidal individuals with respect to expressed inclusion, wanted inclusion, expressed control, and wanted control, irregardless of sex and marital status. However, a significant difference at the .05% level of confidence was evident for religious affiliation regarding wanted control. Two scales, wanted affection and sociability, showed differences between suicidal and nonsuicidal individuals at the .05% level and one more scale, tolerance, showed differences at the .01 % level. These differences favored less social involvement, a lower tolerance level with others, and a greater need for affection from others for suicidal individuals as compared to nonsuicidal individuals. Two interaction effects significant at the .05% level and the .01% level between suicide and sex were evident with respect to expressed affection and warted affection. With regard to expressed affection, the results indicated that suicidal males express more affection than suicidal females while nonsuicidal males express less affection than nonsuicidal females. In addition, with reference to wanted affection, suicidal individuals want affection more that nonsuicidal individuals and females want affection more than males. However, suicidal males wanted affection more than suicidal females, while nonsuicidal females wanted affection more than nonsuicidal males. In examining the Pearson Product-Moment coefficients, no correlations surpassed . 54; however, a slight correlation was apparent within the FIRO-B scales and the CPI scale, Sociability. Little or no relationships were evident for age, education, time in therapy, and the CPI scale, Tolerance. Thus, the results indicated some differences among suicidal and nonsuicidal individuals in therapy with respect to interpersonal need areas. These findings suggest and lend support to a relationship between self - destruction and social and personal needs.