Biasing effects in labeling and recommendations for educational services when factors of socio-economic status and age are manipulated were studied using 50 certified school psychologists in Utah. Subjects received case report information about IQ, behavior and achievement which described a school child in need of services within one of four conditions, Age 7 Socioeconomic status (SES) High, Age 7 SES Low, Age 13 SES High, and Age 13 SES Low. Other potentially biasing variables such as ethnic background, and sex were held constant. No evidence of bias could be found when dependent measures of labeling, recommendations for educational services, and perceived deficiency were used, although the school psychologists indicated they perceived that the child had a significant problem. The implications of these results were discussed in terms of training factors, the relationship between recommendations and actual services school districts may provide, other true causative biasing variables, and experimental methodology.

Model similarity and familiarity were investigated for adult and similar aged models demonstrating prosocial behavior. Third, fourth and fifth graders (75 male and 75 female) participated. Subjects were given questionnaires regarding their most and least preferred peers and their most preferred parent. The models were described as similar to the subject for some groups. Subjects were given instructions concerning a sorting task and cash certificates they would earn. Fifty control subjects viewed a video that contained neither prosocial nor antisocial behavior. For the remaining subjects, a 2 (sex of subject) X 2 (similar age model versus adult model) X 5 (treatment) factorial design was employed. The 5 treatment factors were: unfamiliar models described as a) similar, b) dissimilar, c) with no similarity mentioned, and familiar models who were d) preferred (either a best friend or preferred parent), and e) least preferred (either a least preferred peer or parent). Subjects (except the control group) saw a video taped model who demonstrated a sorting task and collected 20 certificates. All models shared 10 certificates by placing them in a canister marked "for the poor children". Subjects completed the task and had an opportunity to share while alone. Significantly more sharing occurred in the similar age than in the adult model group. Both of which imitated more than the control group. There was no difference in the imitation of males and females overall. There was no difference between the groups that saw unfamiliar models who were described as similar and the groups that saw unfamiliar models with no similarity mentioned. Each of these produced more imitative donating than the control, the familiar preferred model, and the unfamiliar model described as dissimilar groups. The familiar least preferred model group shared more than the control group. There were significant interaction effects between sex and treatment and between sex, treatment, and age of model. Unfamiliar models with no similarity mentioned and peer models each produced more sharing than parent models. Subjects who observed an unfamiliar model described as similar donated more than those seeing an unfamiliar model described as dissimilar. An unfamiliar age-mate model produced more sharing than a familiar and preferred friend. Donations were greater when the subject observed a least preferred peer rather than a best friend. This difference was due to the female subjects' performance.

The specific objective of this research was to begin assessment of construct validity of the Self Inventory Scale. Subjects were 100 Utah State University students, living in university dormitories, chosen at random. Subjects were administered the Self Inventory Scale and the California Psychological Inventory. Subjects submitted names of peers, one of whom was asked to complete an Adjective Check List describing the subject. CPI subscale scores were correlated with Self Inventory Scale subscale scores, to determine the relationship between underlying constructs. Sixty-four of the 126 correlations computed were significant at the .01 significance level. Similarity of construct and configurational analysis of significant correlations suggest construct validity exists for Self Inventory Scale subscales.

This experiment examined the role of delays of reinforcement in producing the response pattern generated by fixed interval (FI) schedules. Conjunctive schedules which required one response and maintained a 100 sec interreinforcement interval were used. These schedules permitted a variable delay of reinforcement to separate the last response in each interval from reinforcement. The maximum delay was specified, however, by specifying the percentage of the interval which must elapse before responses counted toward reinforcement. Maximum delays of 100, 95, 75, 50, 25, 5 and O seconds were examined and their effects on response rate, response distribution, and post-reinforcement pause were measured. The study generated the following results: (1) Although the maximum delay possible was specified, this delay was seldom taken; interim responses were emitted and the delay was shortened. Longer median delay of reinforcement produced lower response rates. (2) Fixed interval schedules produced the shortest postreinforcement pauses. When the schedule allowed longer delays the pause became longer. These changes are seen in overall distributions and only slightly affect the mean pause length. (3) When no delays were possible, e.g. on FI 100 sec, the distribution of pauses within the interval was positively accelerated. With schedules which permitted delays the distributions became less positively accelerated. Generally, the longer the delay of reinforcement, the more negatively accelerated the response distribution within the interval. These data indicate that the delay of reinforcement disrupts the FI schedule performance. Longer delays lower the rate, lengthen the pause and eliminate the pause. Dews, in "The effects of multiple SΔ periods on responding on a fixed-interval schedule," Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1962, 5, 369-374, suggests that the cumulation of delays of reinforcement produces the scalloped pattern. This experiment suggests that this is not the case. Even short delays, e.g. less than 8 sec, disrupt the scalloped pattern. These data suggest that the behavior occurring at the moment of reinforcement, rather than merely the delay of reinforcement per se, determines FI schedule performance.

Characteristic distributions of errors across fixed ratio schedules of reinforcement were studied for two types of discrimination paradigms. Two experiments studied error patterns as a function of hypothesis behavior in two species of animals, children and pigeons. Three key zero-delay matching-to-sample and two key simultaneous discrimination were reinforced for both species of animals on fixed ratio schedules of reinforcement. Experiment 1 involved children on matching-to-sample and simultaneous discrimination, and Experiment 2 involved pigeons on matching-to-sample and simultaneous discrimination. Both species of subjects experienced experimental conditions in which shift or stay response hypotheses were selectively reinforced using a high speed digital computer. Data protocols were scored into four exhaustive error classes; winstay, lose - shift; win-shift, lose-stay; win - stay, lose-stay; and win-shift, lose-shift errors. These four error types were scored by frequency of occurrence and response latency for the ordinal positions of the fixed ratio. Two types of error patterns were defined for individual subjects. A standard error pattern was defined as having 15% more first half ratio errors than last half ratio errors. A reversed error pattern was defined as having 15% more last half ratio errors than first half ratio errors. Experimental results indicated that selective reinforcement of particular response hypotheses produced only small effects for either species of animal on matching-to-sample or simultaneous discrimination. Response latencies for matching-to-sample and simultaneous discrimination were divided into two classes. The first class included long latency responses occurring immediately after reinforcement for children and pigeons. The second class included shorter latencies in the succeeding ordinal positions of the ratio for children and pigeons. A majority of standard error patterns were produced when the total errors were separated into specific error types for low accuracy subjects of both species. The standard error pattern was lost for total errors due to a very high frequency of win-shift, lose-shift errors which were not distributed in any characteristic pattern. Higher accuracy subjects of both species tended to show a majority of reversed error patterns or no patterning when total errors were separated into error types. These subjects had very low frequencies of win-shift, lose-shift errors. The high frequency of win-shift, lose-shift errors in both species of animals across discrimination paradigms could be due to the complexity of the discrimination, a developmental age base for human subjects, or a 0-second intertrial interval.

A number of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of EEG biofeedback procedures in reducing seizure activity in patients who have not achieved remission through drug therapy. However, results indicate a lack of correlation between changes in seizure activity and the EEG parameters trained. Recent research has suggested that occipital alpha activity may be modified indirectly as a function of the EEG biofeedback training procedures. The present study sought to determine the effects of directly conditioning occipital alpha on seizure activity. Three retarded epileptic individuals, who had not achieved complete remission from seizures through drug therapy, were provided with 8-12 Hz occipital EEG biofeedback training using a multiple baseline design While seizures were not totally eliminated in any of the subjects, the results of the study indicated that all subjectsexhibited decreases in some aspect of their seizure activity. S-1 's mean number of seizures per day during EEG feedback training was lower than the baseline or posttraining conditions. Associated with this decrease in seizures was an increase in the percent of seizure free days during training as compared to baseline or posttraining conditions. S-2's mean number of seizures per day decreased during training as compared to baseline. This decrease, however, was not associated with an increase in the percent of seizure free days during training as compared with the baseline condition. S-3 ' s percent of seizure free days increased during training and returned to baseline level during posttraining. The mean number of seizures per day for both the EEG feedback and baseline conditions were approximately equal, and lower than the posttraining condition. Two of the subjects, S-2 and S-3, increased their percent of time of 8-12 Hz activity during the training condition, as compared to baseline levels. Associated with the increase in 8-12 Hz activity was a decrease in percent of time of 4-8 Hz activity; an increase in the mean frequency of 8-12 Hz activity; and with one subject a reduction in the mean amplitude of the 8-12 Hz activity. One possible explanation for these results was the differing degree of effectiveness of the feedback stimuli in terms of their functionality as reinforcers. In addition, several differences between subjects (medication and diagnosis) may have also contributed to the results. One possible explanation which may have accounted for the reduction in seizure frequency not being associated with an increase in 8-12 Hz activity was that a change in another physiological parameter may have occurred as a result of the training procedure which in turn effected a decrease in seizure rate. Or possibly the subjects achieved a generally lower level of arousal which was responsible for the decrease in seizure frequency. The results of the study suggest changes in procedures will be necessary if 8-12 Hz occipital training is to be developed into an adjunctive therapy in the treatment of epilepsy. Methodological improvements which would provide a more accurate assessment of the effectiveness of all EEG biofeedback techniques used in the treatment of epilepsy, include: selection of subjects with higher frequencies of seizures, subjects of normal intelligence, the simultaneous recording of several other physiological parameters, and the development of a more reliable monitoring system of seizure activity.

Two studies were undertaken to assess the relative effects of videotape progressive relaxation and EMG feedback. During both studies EMG levels of the frontalis muscles were recorded. Ten subjects referred by the University Counseling Center, as high anxiety individuals, were exposed to one of the above two methods. A single subject multiple baseline design, including reversals, was used. Each subject was given four or six baseline sessions, one, four or seven exposures to the videotape and three return to baseline sessions. In the second study, using the same design, each subject was given four or six baseline sessions, four or seven EMG feedback sessions and four return to baseline sessions. No relaxation in frontalis EMG occurred during the initial baseline condition for any of the subjects in either study. Only those subjects given seven exposures to either relaxation training method produced significant decreases in frontalis EMG. The videotape subjects showed decreases during both the modeling and return to baseline conditions. The EMG feedback subjects produced systematic decreases in frontalis EMG during the feedback condition but increases occurred during the return to baseline condition. The clinical utility of both relaxation procedures might be increased by: increasing the number of training sessions, programming for generalization to real life situations, and developing other versions of the videotape relaxation program. The suitability of frontalis EMG as an overall indicator of body relaxation is questionable.

An experiment was conducted in order to determine the duration of pigeons' keypecks during three separate variable-interval schedules of reinforcement. Pigeons were exposed to variable interval (VI) 30 sec, VI 60 sec and VI 120 sec schedules of reinforcement for twenty sessions each. Response durations were analyzed in terms of VI schedule , location in time during the inter-reinforcement interval and any pattern of short and long duration pecks. Mean duration of response was reliably different for three out of four birds for VI 30 sec and VI 120 sec schedules of reinforcement. The VI 30 sec schedules produced longer durations. Results for the VI 60 sec condition were equivocal. Mean duration of response was constant throughout the VI interval showing no change in response duration over time. No pattern of long and short pecks was detected. Results were interpreted as confirming the existence of a range of response durations during VI schedules of reinforcement and suggesting that duration of response varies with VI schedule changes.

The purpose of this research was to study the effects of bereavement on the academic achievement of secondary school students who had lost a parent through death by comparing them with students attending the same schools but who were living with both natural parents. The subjects in both groups were matched on pretest scores and demographic characteristics at the beginning of the study. Achievement posttest scores and overall high school grade point averages of both groups were compared using ANCOVA and multiple regression analyses. None of the analyses were found to be statistically significant, implying that academic achievement is not adversely affected by the experience of parental death. Recommendations for further research are presented.

Juvenile drug courts are becoming an increasingly popular answer to rising rates of substance use-related crime among adolescents in the U.S. However, outcome evidence for the efficacy of juvenile drug courts is limited at this time. Currently, approximately 50% of juvenile drug court participants do not graduate from drug court programs nationwide. However, the nongraduates are believed to have a poor prognosis following termination from drug court. The purpose of this study was to determine if participant characteristics are related to outcome in juvenile drug courts. Neither demographic variables (age, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status) nor substance use variables (age at first use, drug of choice, previous treatment, frequency of use) were significantly related to outcome (graduation status) in this sample. However, several scales on the SASSI-A2, a measure of adolescent substance use, provided a significant predication model for graduation from juvenile drug courts. This finding suggests that adolescents who meet diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders, have profiles similar to other adjudicated youth, and who are consciously aware of both the symptoms and negative consequences of their substance use behavior, are more likely to benefit from juvenile drug court programs.