The issue of urban road pricing is currently receiving a great deal of attention. The subject matter has a long history, stretching back to the economic literature of the mid-19th century with a significant renewal of academic interest during the 1960's. Whilst the theoretical basis for urban road pricing has been cogently put forward, an apparent sound economic rationale does not, of itself, ensure political and public acceptanceH. ow then should decision-makingp roceed if the aim is ultimately one of implementing an urban road pricing scheme in the UK? As such, the aim of this thesis is to analyse the process of decision-making with respect to urban road pricing, to develop a theoretical framework for the subsequent empirical research undertaken on road pricing, and to suggest policy options, thus informing the development of policy and furthering the debate among policy-makers. In effect, an incremental approach to urban road pricing decision-making is proposed, which stresses that decisions are generally taken in small adjustments from the existing state of affairs and invariably necessitatet he attainment of agreementb etweent he various stakeholders. Two empirical methods are used in order to analyse this framework. First, a national survey of key stakeholder groups (most notably decision-makers), who have an interest in urban road pricing; and, second, a local case study based on face-to-face interviews with decision-makers who had first-hand experience of the first ever trial of an urban road pricing scheme in the UK - namely congestion metering in the city of Cambridge. This research finds that an incremental approach to urban road pricing decisionmaking is the most appropriate. In order to increase the acceptance of urban road pricing, schemes should be designed so that the various interest groups can gradually adjust to the changes in an incremental way by starting with policies that are currently in force and then considering only step-by-step change. It is still possible however, for change to take place beyond that envisaged by the incremental approach. For this to occur, it would require factors such as the existence of a policy entrepreneur, in situ, who is able to drive the process forward.

This paper identifies factors that are associated with higher levels of public acceptance for recycled and desalinated water. For the first time, a wide range of hypothesized factors, both of socio-demographic and psychographic nature, are included simultaneously. The key results, based on a survey study of about 3000 respondents are that: (1) drivers of the stated likelihood of using desalinated water differ somewhat from drivers of the stated likelihood of using recycled water; (2) positive perceptions of, and knowledge about, the respective water source are key drivers for the stated likelihood of usage; and (3) awareness of water scarcity, as well as prior experience with using water from alternative sources, increases the stated likelihood of use. Practical recommendations for public policy makers, such as key messages to be communicated to the public, are derived. (authors' abstract)

Multi-criteria decision aid has emerged from the operational research field as the answer given to a couple of important questions encountered in complex decisions problems. Firstly, as decision aiding tools, such methods do not replace the decision maker with a mathematical model, but support him to construct his solution by describing and evaluating his options. Secondly, instead of using a unique criterion capturing all aspects of the problem, in the multi-criteria decision aid methods one seeks to build multiple criteria, representing several points of view. This work explores the application of multi-criteria decision aid methods for optimising food chain countermeasure strategies after a radioactive release to the environment. The core of the thesis is dedicated to formulating general lines for the development of a multi-criteria decision aid model. This includes the definition of potential actions, construction of evaluation criteria and preference modelling and is essentially based on the results of a stakeholders’ process. The work is centred on the management of contaminated milk in order to provide a concrete focus and because of its importance as an ingestion pathway in short term after an accident. Among other issues, the public acceptance of milk countermeasures as a key evaluation criterion is analysed in detail. A comparison of acceptance based on stochastic dominance is proposed and, based on that, a countermeasures’ acceptance ranking is deduced. In order to assess “global preferences” taking into account all the evaluation criteria, an ordinal method is chosen. This method allows expressing the relative importance of criteria in a qualitative way instead of using, for instance, numerical weights. Some algorithms that can be used for robustness analysis are also proposed. This type of analysis is an alternative to sensitivity analysis in what concerns data uncertainty and imprecision and seeks to determine how and if a model result or conclusion obtained for a specific instance of a model’s parameters holds over the entire domain of acceptable values for these parameters. The integrated multi-criteria decision aid approach proposed makes use of outranking and interactive methodologies and is implemented and tested through a number of case studies and prototype tools.

Since the implementation of the congestion charge in Gothenburg on the first of January 2013, there has been a debate whether or not the congestion charge would harm the retail business. This concerns, in particular the retail stores located in the charging zone. The general aim of this study was to investigate attitudes and consumer behavior related to the recently introduced congestion charge in Gothenburg and to illustrate the possible impact the congestion charge may have had on retail business performance. In order to do this we conducted a questionnaire survey of visitors to Bäckebol shopping center (n=335). The questionnaire consisted of 24 questions and the response rate was 76 %. In addition, we performed two extensive interviews with key representatives for the local retail business in order to add context and background to the questionnaire findings.  In the questionnaire, consumer behavior was investigated by questions on time of visit, destination, and means of transport. In the analyses we assessed associations between changes in consumer behavior, acceptance and demographic factors. The results of this study showed a low level of acceptance of the congestion charge in the study population. Furthermore, we found a high proportion of subjects reporting a behavioral change related to the introduction of the congestion charge. This was associated to but not explained by a low level of acceptance. It was also related to residency outside the inner parts of Gothenburg.  In this way our results support the theory of an association between behavioral change, degree of acceptance as well as demographic factors. However, in a comparison of certain aspects of behavioral change to a previous study conducted prior to the introduction of the congestion charge we found no difference. It is likely that behavioral changes related to the congestion charge have taken place but they may have been exaggerated in the questionnaire responses. The interviews implied that the congestion charge has had an effect on business performance in Gothenburg but in this investigation we have not been able to find firm proof of this. We can conclude that there appears to be a low acceptance of the congestion charge in particular in suburban areas of Gothenburg and this is most likely associated with a consumer behavioral change.  For further research it would be interesting to obtain information on business performance and customer frequencies before and after the introduction of the congestion charge. In addition it would be of interest to investigate in greater detail the association between acceptance and behavioral change and if retail stores that handle bulky goods are more likely to be affected by a congestion charges than other businesses.

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Local opposition has been widely recognized as a potentially powerful barrier to the successfuldevelopment of wind power projects. As a result, there has been increasing pressure put on industryproponents to adopt comprehensive strategies aimed at increasing local acceptance. The concept ofbenefit sharing is becoming more widely recognized as an effective method of doing so.A comparative analysis of wind power projects throughout Europe has demonstrated considerablevariability both in terms of the quantities and qualities of benefit sharing mechanisms applied. Despitethis variability, however, there does appear to be a tendency toward establishing community funds tosupport certain initiatives in the host locality. Developers have also offered local ownershipopportunities, electricity price reduction for community members, knowledge sharing and/oreducational initiatives, local employment opportunities, and some have undertaken extensiveenvironmental restoration or enhancement projects. The key factors influencing the development of abenefit sharing strategy are the national context, the organizational competencies of the developer andthe local context. Careful consideration of these factors will inform the creation of an effective benefitsharing scheme.However, the application of a benefit sharing scheme in itself does not guarantee acceptance, but rathermust be integrated with effective public engagement and participation in decision making throughwhich the needs, wishes and demands of the host community are addressed and incorporated into theproject details, where possible. Overall, based on the influences of the national context in combinationwith the specific competencies of the developer, organizations are recommended to adopt formalized,yet flexible policies or strategies for benefit sharing in each country where they operate, which can thenbe adapted to the unique circumstances of each project and community.

Renewable energy lies in the center of the debate on climate change. In order to achieve the energy transition, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to terminate our reliance on fossil fuels, wind energy is one of the world’s biggest bets. However, wind power plants are frequently contested at the local level, where they create discussions regarding fairness as benefits and burdens seem not always to be equally distributed. To better understand ‘energy justice’ in the era of renewable energy, our research qualitatively explores the perceptions of relevant involved stakeholders around wind energy projects in three locations in Germany and Sweden. Our findings add evidence and confirm many previous implications from the growing literature of public acceptance and energy justice. In addition, we highlight the importance of distributive, procedural and recognitional justice, as well as paradoxes arising from wind energy projects such as envy, the transformation of nature and the interpretation of citizens’ duties. The study furthermore sustains the faced complexities on the path towards an energy-just world.

Given the important role that trust plays in acceptance of water management schemes, the current research investigated the characteristics and determinants of trust by developing a social-psychological model of trust in the area of water management and reuse. The research advanced a theoretical understanding of trust by using social identity theory and the relational model of trust as a framework and providing a systematic examination of the relationships between the variables in the hypothesised trust model. The proposed trust model was tested across three potentially different perceived risk contexts; low, medium and high. Analysis through path modelling provided strong support for the hypothesised model. In all three contexts trust in the water authority was a significant predictor of acceptance of the water management scheme, and risk perceptions mediated the relationship between trust and acceptance. In other words higher levels of trust in the authority were associated with lower perceptions of risk, which were in turn associated with higher levels of acceptance. In Study 4, which was set in the high perceived risk context of the proposed indirect potable reuse scheme in Toowoomba, perceptions of risk had the strongest direct effect on acceptance of the scheme, and the trust, risk and acceptance relationship was stronger than it was in the other studies. The relational variables of procedural fairness, identification with one’s community, ingroup membership of the water authority and a social bond (shared values) with the water authority were all found to impact on trust, either directly or indirectly. In addition, the instrumental variable of the credibility of the authority (measured as technical competence and a lack of vested interests) was found to have a significant impact on trust. Taken together, the results provide support for social identity theory and the relational model of trust as a framework for understanding trust in authorities. The results are also consistent with literature that suggests that the relational and instrumental models of trust are not incompatible (e.g., Edwards & Kidd, 2003; Tyler & Kramer, 1996). The findings from this research program clearly have a practical application for improving acceptance of water management schemes. The combined results demonstrate the importance of trust in the water authority in reducing perceived risk and thus increasing acceptance of schemes. The results highlight the need for water authorities and policy makers to build public trust through procedural fairness, building a sense of the water authority as a member of the community, and through demonstrating technical competence and concern for the interests of the public.

Given the important role that trust plays in acceptance of water management schemes, the current research investigated the characteristics and determinants of trust by developing a social-psychological model of trust in the area of water management and reuse. The research advanced a theoretical understanding of trust by using social identity theory and the relational model of trust as a framework and providing a systematic examination of the relationships between the variables in the hypothesised trust model. The proposed trust model was tested across three potentially different perceived risk contexts; low, medium and high. Analysis through path modelling provided strong support for the hypothesised model. In all three contexts trust in the water authority was a significant predictor of acceptance of the water management scheme, and risk perceptions mediated the relationship between trust and acceptance. In other words higher levels of trust in the authority were associated with lower perceptions of risk, which were in turn associated with higher levels of acceptance. In Study 4, which was set in the high perceived risk context of the proposed indirect potable reuse scheme in Toowoomba, perceptions of risk had the strongest direct effect on acceptance of the scheme, and the trust, risk and acceptance relationship was stronger than it was in the other studies. The relational variables of procedural fairness, identification with one’s community, ingroup membership of the water authority and a social bond (shared values) with the water authority were all found to impact on trust, either directly or indirectly. In addition, the instrumental variable of the credibility of the authority (measured as technical competence and a lack of vested interests) was found to have a significant impact on trust. Taken together, the results provide support for social identity theory and the relational model of trust as a framework for understanding trust in authorities. The results are also consistent with literature that suggests that the relational and instrumental models of trust are not incompatible (e.g., Edwards & Kidd, 2003; Tyler & Kramer, 1996). The findings from this research program clearly have a practical application for improving acceptance of water management schemes. The combined results demonstrate the importance of trust in the water authority in reducing perceived risk and thus increasing acceptance of schemes. The results highlight the need for water authorities and policy makers to build public trust through procedural fairness, building a sense of the water authority as a member of the community, and through demonstrating technical competence and concern for the interests of the public.

Given the important role that trust plays in acceptance of water management schemes, the current research investigated the characteristics and determinants of trust by developing a social-psychological model of trust in the area of water management and reuse. The research advanced a theoretical understanding of trust by using social identity theory and the relational model of trust as a framework and providing a systematic examination of the relationships between the variables in the hypothesised trust model. The proposed trust model was tested across three potentially different perceived risk contexts; low, medium and high. Analysis through path modelling provided strong support for the hypothesised model. In all three contexts trust in the water authority was a significant predictor of acceptance of the water management scheme, and risk perceptions mediated the relationship between trust and acceptance. In other words higher levels of trust in the authority were associated with lower perceptions of risk, which were in turn associated with higher levels of acceptance. In Study 4, which was set in the high perceived risk context of the proposed indirect potable reuse scheme in Toowoomba, perceptions of risk had the strongest direct effect on acceptance of the scheme, and the trust, risk and acceptance relationship was stronger than it was in the other studies. The relational variables of procedural fairness, identification with one’s community, ingroup membership of the water authority and a social bond (shared values) with the water authority were all found to impact on trust, either directly or indirectly. In addition, the instrumental variable of the credibility of the authority (measured as technical competence and a lack of vested interests) was found to have a significant impact on trust. Taken together, the results provide support for social identity theory and the relational model of trust as a framework for understanding trust in authorities. The results are also consistent with literature that suggests that the relational and instrumental models of trust are not incompatible (e.g., Edwards & Kidd, 2003; Tyler & Kramer, 1996). The findings from this research program clearly have a practical application for improving acceptance of water management schemes. The combined results demonstrate the importance of trust in the water authority in reducing perceived risk and thus increasing acceptance of schemes. The results highlight the need for water authorities and policy makers to build public trust through procedural fairness, building a sense of the water authority as a member of the community, and through demonstrating technical competence and concern for the interests of the public.