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Hydraulic fracturing is a controversial practice because of concerns about environmental impacts due to its widespread use in recovering unconventional petroleum and natural gas deposits. However, water-only hydraulic fracturing has been used safely and successfully for many years to increase the permeability of aquifers used for drinking and irrigation water supply. This process extends and widens existing bedrock fractures, allowing groundwater storage to increase. Researchers have studied the behavior of fractured-rock aquifers for decades, but little has been published on the hydraulic and mechanical properties of hydraulically enhanced fractures. In this study, a multi-faceted approach consisting of aquifer and tracer testing is used to estimate the transmissivity and storage coefficient of a hydraulically induced fracture and observe its behavior as a contaminant flow pathway. The results of the aquifer tests indicated a decrease in both the transmissivity and storage coefficient of the fracture of three orders of magnitude after cessation of pumping. The aquifer temporarily experienced incomplete recovery following pumping tests, likely due to slow recharge. After complete recovery occurred, subsequent tests showed that these hydraulic properties returned to their original values, indicating elastic compression of the fracture during periods of applied stress. The results of the tracer test indicated rapid, uniform, one-dimensional flow through the fracture, with average fluid velocity approaching 1 km/day in an induced steady flow field of 6 x 10-5 m3/s (1 gal/min) and a fracture volume of 0.238 m3 (63 gal). The complex heterogeneity of fractured-rock aquifers necessitates the use of multiple lines of testing in order to arrive at a detailed description of the behavior of these systems. This study demonstrates one effective method of investigating a single fracture that can uncover information about the behavior of a hydraulically enhanced aquifer that is otherwise difficult to obtain. / Master of Science

Over an extended period of time there have been plans to establish a shared facility in Lennheden to extract groundwater from the Badelunda esker to provide drinking water for the cities of Borlänge and Falun. The city of Falun is dissatisfied with the quality of its drinking water and the city of Borlänge is concerned about the risk of contamination of its existing groundwater supply at its current location. To provide a basis for a decision on this issue, the company Midvatten AB has been commissioned to perform hydrogeological investigations in the area of Lennheden. The purpose of this thesis is to design a functional groundwater model of the area between Lennheden, place of planned extraction, and Övre Tjärna, place of existing extraction, to get a better understanding of the groundwater situation in the area. A groundwater model enables simulations of different scenarios in risk assessment and contaminant transport. The aim of the thesis is that the model can be used as an aid in Midvatten’s investigations in Lennheden and that it also can be used in future projects in the area. The model has been made in Processing Modflow 5.3 and encompasses an area of 19,5 × 11 km along the Badelunda esker and the river Dalälven between Djurmo and Frostbrunnsdalen. The model has 6 layers and a cell resolution of 50 × 50 meters and 50 × 100 meters. The physical parameters of the model are comprised from different hydrological and geological investigations in the area. The Badelunda esker and the river Dalälven totally dominate the groundwater situation in the area. A large part of the work in the thesis has been focused on the calibration of the horizontal hydraulic conductivity in the esker and the vertical hydraulic conductivity in the riverbed of Dalälven. The calibration of the model implies a vertical hydraulic conductivity of 0,01 – 0,1 md-1 in the riverbed of Dalälven, depending on the riverbed thickness. Between Bäsna and Övre Tjärna, simulated and observed groundwater levels correspond well. The transport time of the water in the esker, simulated in PMPATH, also corresponds well with estimated transport times. The model can be used for simpler studies of contaminant transport. Simulation of the pumping test in Lennheden gives a good correspondence eastward in the esker from Lennheden to Övre Tjärna. Westward in the esker, from Lennheden to Bäsna, the draw down is sharper than observed. Possible reasons for the sharper draw down is an underestimation of the bulk of the esker and that the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the riverbed is set too low between Lennheden and Bäsna. In order to improve the model, the most important step should be to thoroughly investigate the river Dalälven with regards to vertical hydraulic conductivity in the riverbed and riverbed thickness. / Under en längre tid har det funnits planer på att upprätta en ny, gemensam vattentäkt för Borlänge och Falu kommun i Badelundaåsen i Lennheden nordväst om Borlänge stad. Falu kommun är missnöjd med vattenkvaliteten i sin ytvattentäkt och Borlänge är oroad över riskerna med att ha sin nuvarande vattentäkt i Badelundaåsen lokaliserad i nära anslutning till riksväg 70 och järnvägen. Beslut i frågan ska tas under 2006 och Midvatten AB har fått i uppdrag att genomföra geohydrologiska undersökningar i och runt Lennheden som underlag till beslutet. Syftet med det här examensarbetet är att skapa en fungerande grundvattenmodell för området mellan Lennheden, plats för planerat vattenuttag, och Övre Tjärna, plats för befintligt vattenuttag, för att få en större förståelse för grundvattenmagasinet. En grundvattenmodell möjliggör simulering av olika scenarion så som föroreningstransport i grundvattnet och bestämning av skyddsområden. Målet är att modellen ska kunna användas som ett komplement i Midvattens undersökningar och även användas i framtida projekt i området. Modellen är gjord i Processing Modflow 5.3 och omfattar ett 19,5 × 11 km stort område längs Badelundaåsen och Dalälven mellan Djurmo och Frostbrunnsdalen. Modellen består av 6 lager där cellernas upplösning är 50 × 50 meter och 50 × 100 meter. De fysiska parametrar som modellen är uppbyggd av är sammanställda från olika hydrologiska och geologiska undersökningar som har utförts i området de senaste 30 åren. Badelundaåsen och Dalälven är de två komponenter som totalt dominerar grundvattensituationen i området. En stor del av arbetet har fokuserats på kalibreringen av den horisontella hydrauliska konduktiviteten i åsen och den vertikala hydrauliska konduktiviteten i Dalälvens botten. I modellen är den vertikala hydrauliska konduktiviteten i Dalälvens botten kalibrerad till intervallet 0,01 – 0,1 md-1 beroende på bottnens mäktighet. På sträckan mellan Bäsna och Övre Tjärna så fungerar modellen bra. Simulerade och observerade grundvattennivåer stämmer väl överens. Även vattnets transporttider i åsen, simulerade i PMPATH, stämmer väl överens med uppskattade transporttider. Modellen kan användas för enklare studier av ämnestransport. Vid simulering av provpumpningen i Lennheden så är överensstämmelsen god österut i åsen, från Lennheden till Övre Tjärna. Västerut i åsen, från Lennheden till Bäsna, är avsänkningen av grundvattennivån för kraftig. Möjliga orsaker till den för kraftiga avsänkningen är att åsens utbredning är underskattad och att Dalälvens botten har en för lågt ansatt vertikal hydraulisk konduktivitet längs sträckan Lennheden – Bäsna. Den klart viktigaste åtgärden för att förbättra modellen skulle vara att grundligt undersöka Dalälven, särskilt längs sträckan Djurmo – Båtsta, med avseende på dess bottens vertikala hydrauliska konduktivitet och mäktighet.

This dissertation collates all available data from the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry’s (DWAF’s) National Groundwater Database (NGDB), DWAF’s Groundwater Resource Information Project (GRIP) and tests conducted during the progress of this project in order to evaluate Basement aquifers. The project was commenced at the request of the Water Research Commission (WRC), situated in Pretoria, South Africa. The study area (Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba Water Management Areas, WMA1 and WMA2 respectively) is underlain by fractured, crystalline Basement terrain. The influences of structures (i.e. joints, faults and shear zones) and the neotectonic stress conditions were also studied to address the influence on groundwater flow and occurrence. The aim of the project was to address the determination of the aquifer parameters (essentially transmissivity and sustainable yield) in Basement terrane. Pumping test data was used and analysed via the Flow Characteristic Programme (Institute for Groundwater Studies, University of Free State). The methods of Logan (1964), Theis (1935), Cooper-Jacob (1946) and Birsoy-Summers (1980) were applied for comparative purposes. Statistically, all four methods supplied results within the same order of magnitude, with Theis and Cooper-Jacob correlating extremely well. Results from the Logan and Birsoy-Summers methods correlated very well too, but the T-values calculated via Logan’s method were almost double those obtained from the step-drawdown data analysed via the Birsoy-Summers method. The combined results adhered to a developed model-setting-scenario approach where each borehole can be evaluated based on three parameters. Firstly, the model refers to the potential water-bearing and/or water-barring features. In the study area, it was found that water predominates in the Hout River Shear Zone, and that the neotectonic stress fields have little influence on determining the orientation of favourable water-bearing structures. Geological contacts often resulted in higher yielding boreholes than geological structures. Secondly, the setting refers to the climatic and tectonic setting of the site. This determines the recharge and the orientation of structures. Based on this, supposedly closed structures (due to prevailing neotectonic stress fields) often supplied higher yielding boreholes than the supposedly open structures. Rainfall and climate however had little influence on the results. Finally, the scenario ranks a borehole in terms of high, intermediate or low transmissivity and subsequently potential yield. High T-values typically exceeded 100 m2/d whereas low T-values were generally below 5 m2/d. Significantly low yielding boreholes therefore formed part of the Low T Scenario, and high yielding boreholes of the High T Scenario. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Geology / unrestricted

Les milieux aquifères karstiques représentent des ressources en eau importantes, particulièrement sur le pourtour méditerranéen où ils constituent la majorité des réservoirs d'eau douce souterraine. La demande en eau ayant littéralement explosée au cours de ces dernières années, ces ressources en eau constituent un facteur limitant du développement, à l'origine de conflits d'aménagements et d'usages. Il est donc nécessaire d'avoir une meilleure connaissance de ces milieux afin de proposer une exploitation appropriée, répondant aux besoins régionaux. Toutefois, ces milieux restent encore mal connus, notamment à cause de la difficulté à caractériser leur fonctionnement inhérent à l'hétérogénéité organisée de leurs écoulements. Afin d'améliorer la connaissance de ces milieux, nous avons réalisé une étude détaillée des propriétés hydrologiques de l'aquifère karstique du Lez situé en région Nord Montpelliéraine. La source du Lez alimente en eau potable la région par des pompages dans le conduit principal du réseau de drainage. Le bassin (d'une superficie d'environ 200 km²) est équipé d'un réseau dense de piézomètres, ainsi que d'un site expérimental, situé à 4.5 km au nord de la source du Lez concentrant une vingtaine de forage sur une superficie d'environ 1500 m². Ce travail porte à la fois sur 1) une caractérisation multi-échelle de l'hétérogénéité des propriétés hydrodynamiques du système, et 2) une étude du transfert de masse au sein du réservoir via analyse de traçages artificiels réalisés à l'échelle régionale et à l'échelle du site expérimental. Dans un premier temps, les essais en puits seul ont permis caractériser les différents éléments du karst et d'identifier les structures les plus transmissives. A l'échelle du site expérimental, l'analyse de l'essai de pompage a mis en évidence une connectivité globale liée à l'interface stratigraphique et une hiérarchisation des écoulements dépendante de la fracturation verticale. Enfin, l'étude des interférences des pompages du Lez à l'échelle régionale indique une compartimentation hydraulique du système. Les propriétés hydrodynamiques estimées dépendent de l'hétérogénéité structurale et des conditions hydrologiques du bassin. Le recoupement de ces différentes analyses permet une discrétisation des paramètres hydrauliques des composantes structurant les écoulements au sein d'un massif karstique. L'étude du transfert de masse à l'échelle locale et régionale complète cette caractérisation et renseigne les propriétés de transport du réseau karstique. Les essais de traçage à l'échelle du site mettent en évidence la forte hétérogénéité du milieu avec des chemins d'écoulement multiples induisant un gradient de vitesse. Tandis qu'à l'échelle régionale une corrélation des vitesses d'écoulement est observée au sein du réseau de drainage principal.L'ensemble de ces résultats fournit une meilleure connaissance à différentes échelles des propriétés et de la vulnérabilité de ces milieux complexes, constituant une base essentielle pour une modélisation hydrodynamique multi-échelle de ce type d'aquifères. / Characterizing groundwater flows in karst aquifers at different scales of space and time, is not an easy task due to the high level of heterogeneity of these aquifers. Because the limited testing radius of classical hydraulic methods (slug tests, pumping tests), the regional hydraulic parameters of karst systems are generally estimated using the flow recession analysis method. But this integrative method generally does not give a differentiation into regionally varying parameters. Also, it is generally difficult to gather enough data to characterize aquifer heterogeneities at regional scale. For this reason, most of studies about hydrodynamic characterization of karst aquifer focus on local scales, i.e experimental field site scale or borehole scale; measurements at small scale could then be upscaled to obtain hydrodynamic parameters at regional scale. Consequently, understanding scale dependence of groundwater flows organization in such a context is of prime importance for the development of regional scale model.In this study, the monitoring of groundwater flow and transport is performed at several scales of time and space, within a single Mediterranean karstic carbonate aquifer, the Lez karst aquifer, located South of France. Groundwater is intensely pumped in a karst conduit upstream of the main karst outlet (Lez spring), for regional water supply. At regional scale, the relatively dense groundwater monitoring network permits to determine the hydrodynamic properties of the aquifer inferred from the hydrodynamic response to pumping at the Lez spring. At the scale of the experimental field site (Terrieu site), that comprises 22 boreholes, several experiments (i.e. pumping tests, packer tests, slug and injection tests) were performed to determine the hydrodynamic properties at experimental field site scale and borehole scale. Tracer experiments were also performed to provide an estimation of transport properties both at the scale of the experimental field site and at regional scale.The hydrodynamic properties estimated at different scale of space and time (for different hydrological conditions) were compared with flow paths organization linked to the geological structure of the reservoir. At regional scale both the hydrological conditions (i.e. high or low water level) and geological compartmentalization that impact the hydraulic connectivity, control the hydrodynamic properties. Tracer experiments revealed short time transfer and high connectivity between injection points and the spring. At the experimental field site scale, pumping and tracer test highlighted heterogeneous flow pattern that can be linked to the position of boreholes and the main geological features. At borehole scale, hydraulic tests revealed a high range of hydrodynamic properties (transmissivity from 10-11 m²/s to 10-2 m²/s) depending on the investigated part of the aquifer (matrix, fracture or drain).Depending on the water level conditions, the aquifer presents variable organization of flows that modify the hydrodynamic parameters. As expected, variability of hydrodynamic parameters depends on the scale of investigation: a difference of 10 to 105 has been quantified for a same parameter characterized at borehole scale and at regional scale. This hydrogeological parameters quantification of karst system provides important constrain about multiscale modeling using conceptual models to represent the characteristics of the main flow paths.

Det finns idag behov av att ta fram information om hur vatten flödar i marken. För att undersöka detta brukar det installeras grundvattenrör. Grundvattenrör används oftast i syfte att bevaka grundvattennivåer i marken men kan även användas för att utföra hydrauliska tester vars syfte är att skatta jordens hydrauliska egenskaper. Det är då framförallt den hydrauliska konduktiviteten som söks. Kunskap om markens hydrauliska konduktivitet är bland annat viktig för modellering av grundvattenflöden och beräkning av föroreningsspridning. Genom åren har det utvecklats ett antal hydrauliska tester för att ta fram hydrauliska egenskaper i jorden. Från de ursprungliga testerna med pumprör och observationsrör (interferenstester) har det tillkommit metoder för att genomföra tester i enskilda grundvattenrör. Idag kan bland annat pumptest och slugtest genomföras för att skatta hydrauliska egenskaper i enskilda grundvattenrör. Examensarbetet har undersökt olika hydrauliska tester som genomförs i enskilt grundvattenrör. Testerna har varit pumptest, injektionstest, slugtest med solid slug, slugtest med vatten och stigningsmätning. Testerna har genomförts i 11 olika grundvattenrör. Grundvattenrören har varit placerade i olika jordarter och akvifertyper. Alla tester har gjorts i alla rör för att kunna göra en jämförelse mellan testerna. Resultat från testerna visar att det föreligger en variation i skattade hydrauliska egenskaper när en jämförelse gjordes mellan alla slugtester och alla pumptester. Pumptesterna gav generellt en mindre variation mellan test och modellösning och visar sig därför mer oberoende av testtyp och val av modellösning. Slugtesterna visade skillnad i skattad hydraulisk konduktivitet beroende på modellösning. Modellösningarna Hyder mfl. (1994)/KGS och Dougherty-Babu (1984) för slugtest gav en högre skattning hydraulisk konduktivitet än pumptesterna medan modellösningen Bouwer-Rice (1976) gav en lägre skattning av hydraulisk konduktivitet än pumptesterna. Testerna skiljer sig åt när de genomförs i olika jordarter. I lågkonduktiva jordarter är det svårt att genomföra olika typer av pumptest då dessa är påverkade av brunnsmagasin och det krävs att pumpflödet är tillräckligt lågt för att grundvattenröret inte ska torrläggas eller svämma över. Därför är det rekommenderat att utföra slugtest i lågkonduktiva jordarter. I högkonduktiva jordarter är det rekommenderat att göra pumptester då slugtester genererar färre mätpunkter och kan därför leda till fel i modelleringen. / There is a need today to gain information on how water moves in the ground. Groundwater pipes are therefore installed to monitor the groundwater levels. These groundwater pipes can however be used to perform hydraulic tests to obtain information regarding hydraulic properties of the soil. Hydraulic tests are usually performed to investigate the water flow in the soil. This water flow is called hydraulic conductivity. Information on hydraulic conductivity is, for example, essential in modeling of pollutant transport. Several types of hydraulic tests have been developed throughout history in the purpose to investigate hydraulic properties in the soil. The original tests involved pumping tests where one pipe was pumped while an adjacent pipe was used to monitor water level changes. From these original pumping tests there has been a development where the methods can be applied in a single groundwater pipe. Typical single-well tests used today are pumping tests and slug tests. This thesis has investigated and evaluated different hydraulic test performed in single groundwater pipes. Two types of pumping test have been performed: pumping test with constant flow, where the water is pumped out from the pipe, and injection test where water is pumped into the pipe with a constant flow. Three types of slug test have been performed: slug test using a solid slug, slug test using water and rising head test. Slug test is a test where the water level in the pipe is rapidly lowered or raised. The time it takes for the water to return to the initial water level is measured and used to calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the soil. The tests have been performed in 11 different groundwater monitoring pipes. The groundwater pipes were situated in different types of soil and aquifers. All the tests were performed in all the pipes to be able to compare them. Different model solutions were used to analyze the measured data from the hydraulic tests. The results showed variation in estimated hydraulic conductivity when the average hydraulic conductivity of pumping tests and slug tests were compared. The different types of pumping tests had on average a small difference in hydraulic conductivity and the results were on average independent of model solution used. Depending on the model solution there was a difference in hydraulic conductivity for the slug tests. The model solutions of Hyder et al (1994)/KGS and Dougherty-Babu (1984) for slug test estimated over-all a higher hydraulic conductivity than the pumping tests while the model solution of Bouwer-Rice (1976) estimated over-all a lower hydraulic conductivity than the pumping tests. The results and performance of the tests behaved differently depending on the type of soil. It was difficult to perform pumping and injection tests in low conductivity soils due to well-bore storage in the groundwater pipe. It is therefore recommended to perform slug tests in low conductivity soils and pumping tests in high conductivity soil because slug tests generates fewer measurements than pumping tests and can cause errors in the modeling.

Masters of Science / The thesis investigates the potential of the Rietfontein and Spitskop aquifer to meet a demand of 1000 m3/d (12 Lis) as an alternative water resource for the Rietfontein and Spitskop Community. Increasing demand for clean and hygienic drinking water puts more pressure on one of our most valuable resources and supplying all communities with surface water is an extremely difficult and costly task in rural areas like Rietfontein and Spitskop in South Africa. Therefore it is necessary that interim water supplies be found from local aquifers and be utilized to address water supply challenges. Groundwater may serve as a short-term and an interim water supply which may be useful during future dry periods. Abstraction of groundwater is sensitive to recharge. Due to semi-arid conditions in Rietfontein and Spitskop area, there is high rainfall variation and disparity each year. During the research, hydrocensus was carried out. Water samples for chemistry analysis were taken. Literature review and pumping test data was utilized from the previous studies done by different consultants (Botha, 2000, Vivier and Pretorius, 2003). A numerical groundwater flow model for the local aquifers in the area and surroundings was constructed focusing on recharge and abstraction scenarios for the water supply from the local aquifers. For Rietfontein and Spitskop area, the mean annual precipitation (MAP) is 617mm/year. To be assured and rational in determining aquifers ability to meet the required demand a recharge with ninety-five (95th ) percentile was recommended, which estimates the MAP of 308mm/year which is 50% lower than the average MAP of 617mm/year. For a period of ninety six (96) years, the data indicates a severe drought occurred four (4) times where the rainfall was even lower than 95th percentile level of assurance of recharge estimated. This gives a comprehensible indication that average mean is not ideal or steadfast stature when building a water supply numerical groundwater flow modelling. These aquifers can only be exploited and managed if a reliable method can be obtained to estimate their long-term sustainable potential, since the sustainable potential of these aquifers to supply the communities is dependent upon the recharge from rainfall. The results from a numerical groundwater flow model indicated that a combined potential from the local aquifer from eighteen (18) boreholes is sufficient to meet the required demand and a total of 2600m3 Id can potentially be abstracted from the aquifer. With ninety-five (95th ) percentile recharge rate of 308mm/year a numerical groundwater flow model shows that the rate of abstraction is 80% far less than recharge, which gives high level of assurance in terms of local aquifer water supply demand. The abstraction of the boreholes confirmed by a numerical groundwater flow model shows the least impact on the surrounding aquifer for an extended period of time. In the event of drought, the boreholes will see a decline in water level after two (2) months of pumping local aquifer. The water level will decline steadily from two (2) months to two (2) years with a change in water levels of up to 40m. The impact of the drought is minimal compared to recharge rate, which verifies less depletion of the aquifer. The local aquifer shows the potential of 3MLld can be supplied to the communities with an assurance level of 95th percentile of rainfall. Reliable quantification of groundwater recharge rate remains the main challenges the hydrologist experienced and further research is essential for improvement of groundwater management for the area concerned.