The regulation of pyrimidine biosynthesis was studied in Pseudomonas putida. The biosynthetic and salvage pathways provide pyrimidine nucleotides for RNA, DNA, cell membrane and cell wall biosynthesis. Pyrimidine metabolism is intensely studied because many of its enzymes are targets for chemotheraphy. Four aspects of pyrimidine regulation are described in this dissertation. Chapter I compares the salvage pathways of Escherichia coli and P. putida. Surprisingly, P. putida lacks several salvage enzymes including nucleoside kinases, uridine phosphorylase and cytidine deaminase. Without a functional nucleoside kinase, it was impossible to feed exogenous uridine to P. putida. To obviate this problem, uridine kinase was transferred to P. putida from E. coli and shown to function in this heterologous host. Chapter II details the enzymology of Pseudomonas aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase), its allosteric regulation and how it is assembled. The E. coli ATCase is a dodecamer of two different polypeptides, encoded by pyrBI. Six regulatory (PyrI) and six catalytic (PyrB) polypeptides assemble from two preformed trimers (B3) and three preformed regulatory dimers (I2) in the conserved 2B3:3I2 molecular structure. The Pseudomonas ATCase also assembles from two different polypeptides encoded by pyrBC'. However, a PyrB polypeptide combines with a PyrC. polypeptide to form a PyrB:PyrC. protomer; six of these assemble into a dodecamer of structure 2B3:3C'2. pyrC' encodes an inactive dihydroorotase with pyrB and pyrC' overlapping by 4 bp. Chapter III explores how catabolite repression affects pyrimidine metabolism. The global catabolite repression control protein, Crc, has been shown to affect pyrimidine metabolism in a number of ways. This includes orotate transport for use as pyrimidine, carbon and nitrogen sources. Orotate is important because it interacts with PyrR in repressing the pyr genes. Chapter IV describes PyrR, the positive activator of the pyrimidine pathway. As with other positive activator proteins, when pyrimidine nucleotides are depleted, PyrR binds to DNA thereby enhancing expression of pyrD, pyrE and pyrF genes. When pyrimidine nucleotides are in excess, the PyrR apoprotein binds to orotate, its co-repressor, to shut down all the pyrimidine genes. Like many positive activators, PyrR is subject to autoregulation and has catalytic activity for uracil phosphoribosyltransferase inducible by orotate.

This dissertation describes an introduction, background and research progress in the areas of multitargeted single agents and tubulin inhibitors in cancer chemotherapy and selective Toxoplasma gondii TS inhibitors for the treatment of toxoplasmosis.<br> Tubulin inhibitors are important antitumor agents that disrupt microtubule dynamics. Thymidylate synthase (TS) inhibitors prevent cell division by interfering with de novo thymidylate synthesis. Antiangiogenic agents target tumor angiogenesis crucial for tumor growth and metastasis. Under normal circumstances, angiogenesis is typically limited to tumor cells and is mediated by receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Combination chemotherapies of RTK inhibitors with cytotoxic agents that target either TS or tubulin have shown significant promise and several preclinical and clinical studies with such combinations are in progress. Multitargeted single agents with dual antiangiogenic and cytotoxic mechanisms could avoid the major limitations associated with cancer chemotherapy: multidrug resistance and dose limiting toxicities. This dissertation focuses on the design and synthesis of pyrimido[4,5-b]indoles and furo[2,3-d]pyrimidines as potential single agents with dual antiangiogenic and cytotoxic activities. These efforts led to the identification of structural features that are necessary for inhibition of RTKs and/or tubulin polymerization. Novel synthetic strategies were developed for efficient synthesis of 2,4-diamino-5-thioaryl-pyrimido[4,5-b]indoles and 4-anilino-5-methyl-furo[2,3-d]pyrimidines.<br> Taxanes and vinca alkaloids are widely used tubulin inhibitors in cancer chemotherapy. However, their clinical use is compromised by two major mechanisms of drug resistance: the overexpression of Pgp and bIII-tubulin. This dissertation describes the design and synthesis of pyrimido[4,5-b]indoles as tubulin inhibitors that circumvent Pgp and bIII-tubulin mediated resistance. This work identified the structural features crucial for tubulin inhibition for the pyrimido[4,5-b]indole scaffold.<br> Infection by Toxoplasma gondii can lead to toxoplasmosis in immune compromised patients such as organ transplant, cancer and AIDS patients. Current therapy involving combination of sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine is limited by drug resistance and treatment failures. The thymidylate synthase‒dihydrofolate reductase enzyme is important for thymidylate synthesis in T. gondii, and hence can be targeted to treat T. gondii infection. TS is highly conserved across species and selectivity for tgTS over human TS is significantly more challenging. The present work provides an efficient synthesis of 2-diamino-4-oxo-5-thioaryl-pyrimido[4,5-b]indoles as selective tgTS inhibitors. / Mylan School of Pharmacy and the Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; / Medicinal Chemistry / PhD; / Dissertation;

The importance of metabolism in tumor initiation and progression is becoming increasingly clear. Metabolic changes induced by oncogenic drivers of cancer contribute to tumor growth and are attractive targets for cancer treatment. Phosphatase and Tensin homolog deleted from chromosome ten (PTEN) is one of the most commonly mutated tumor suppressors in cancer and operates in multiple roles, rendering it a hub for understanding cancer biology and for developing targeted therapy. PTEN’s canonical function is its ability to antagonize the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway by dephosphorylating the lipid second messenger phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5) tri-phosphate (PIP3). This thesis focuses on the effects of PTEN loss on cellular metabolism, and the therapeutic vulnerability that stems from metabolic alterations. First, we discovered that loss of Pten in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) increases cellular proliferation and the number of replication forks per cell, launching our investigation into metabolic pathways that may be altered to support increased growth. Indeed, we found that Pten-/- cells exhibited a dependence on glutamine for their faster rate of growth, and that glutamine was channeled into the de novo synthesis of pyrimidines. The next chapter examined dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH), a rate limiting enzyme for pyrimidine ring synthesis in the de novo pyrimidine synthesis pathway. We found that PTEN-deficient primary cells and cancer cell lines were more sensitive to inhibition of DHODH than PTEN WT cells were, and that the growth inhibition could be rescued by metabolites downstream of DHODH. Furthermore, we found that xenografted human triple negative breast cancer tumors in mice could be diminished by treatment with leflunomide, a DHODH inhibitor. In the following chapter, we aimed to identify the mechanisms leading to cell death in PTEN mutant cells upon DHODH inhibition. We found that inherent defects in checkpoint regulation in PTEN-deficient cells were exacerbated by the stress of obstructed de novo pyrimidine synthesis, leading to a buildup of DNA damage at replication forks and ultimately chromosomal breaks. This was instigated by AKT-mediated phosphorylation of TOPBP1 that caused inadequate ATR activation, as well as AKT-mediated phosphorylation and inactivation of CHK1. In sum, the findings of this thesis indicate that enhanced glutamine flux to de novo pyrimidine synthesis in PTEN mutant cells generates vulnerability to DHODH inhibition. The integration of altered glutamine regulation with PTEN’s effect on replication, DNA damage, and the checkpoint response manifests as synthetic lethality upon DHODH inhibition in cells with PTEN inactivation. Inhibition of DHODH could thus be a promising therapy for patients with PTEN mutant cancers.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--McMaster University (Canada), 1993. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 54-12, Section: B, page: 6203. Adviser: Russell A. Bell.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / This study describes the attainment of twenty three (23) bis-heterocycles derived from the Levulinic Acid: Bis-Pyrazoles (6a-k) by the reaction of cyclecondensation between the 3-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazol-3-il)propanohidrazidamand a series of replaced β-alcoxiviniltrifluorometilcetonas. 1,3,4-oxadiazole 2-5-disubstituted (8-11) by reactions like [4 + 1] [OCNN+C], through the reactions of cyclecondensation between the 3-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)propanohidrazida with different orthoesters as well as with carbon disulfide. It was also produced hydrazides (16c-d, g-h e 17c-d, g-h) derived of synthesized pyrimidines, to be used as precursorsn in the synthesis of bis-heterocycles, derivatizated of the reaction of those with some β- Ketones alcoxiviniltrifluormetil. The bis-heterocycles were obtained by the ordinary methodology, with efficiency between 61-97%.It was also gotten other original compounds (3i-k, 5), used as precursors in this study. The structure of these synthesized compounds were confirmed by the data of RMN 1H, 13C, besides the data of mass spectrometry. / Este trabalho descreve a obtenção de 23 novos bis-heterociclos derivados do Ácido Levulínico: Bis-Pirazóis (6a-k) a partir da reação de ciclocondensação entre o 3-(5-(trifluorometil)-4,5-dihidro-1H-pirazol-3-il)propanohidrazida e uma série de β-alcoxiviniltrifluorometilcetonas substituídas; 1,3,4-oxadiazóis 2-5-dissubstituídos (8-11) via reações do tipo [4 + 1] [OCNN+C], através de reações de ciclocondensação entre a 3-(5-(trifluorometil)-4,5-dihidro-1H-pirazol-3-il)propanohidrazida com diferentes ortoésteres, bem como com dissulfeto de carbono. Foram produzidas ainda, hidrazidas( 16c-d, g-h e 17c-d, g-h) derivadas de pirimidinas sintetizadas, para serem utilizadas como precursores na síntese de bis-heterociclos, derivatizados da reação destas com algumas β-alcoxiviniltrifluormetil cetonas. Os bis-heterociclos foram obtidos por metodologia convencional, com rendimentos entre 61-97%. Foram obtidos ainda outros compostos inéditos (3i-k, 5) utilizados como precursores nesse trabalho. As estruturas dos compostos sintetizados foram confirmadas por dados de RMN 1H, 13C, além de dados de espectrometria de massas.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Chemoselective synthesis of ethyl 4-pirimidinecarboxylates and/or ethyl 5-pirimidineoxalates via cyclocondensation reaction of b-dimethylaminoenones [R1C(=O)C(=CNMe2)C(=O)CO2Et, where R1 = Ph, 4-MeC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-BrC6H4, 4-ClC6H4, 4-FC6H4, 4-O2NC6H4, 2-thienyl, benzo[b]furan-2-yl and CF3] with NCN 1,3- dinucleophiles such as benzamidine hydrochloride or 1H-1-pyrazolyl-carboxamidine hydrochloride (50-86%); utilization of ethyl 4-pirimidinecarboxylates (when R1 = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-FC6H4 and 2-thienyl) in the cyclization reaction with hydrazine monohydrate, leading to 7,8-dihydropyrimido[4,5-d]pyridazin-8-ones (81-92%). In this work it was also studied the condensation reaction of (3,5-dimethyl-1H-1- pyrazolyl)alkylketones with N,N-dimethylformamide dimethylacetal, with the aim to obtain b-dimethylaminoenones [PhC(=O)C(=CNMe2)(3,5-dimethyl-1H-1-pyrazolyl), PhC(=O)C(=CNMe2)(3,5-dimethyl-1H-1-pyrazolylmethyl) and MeC(=O)C(=CNMe2)(3,5-dimethyl-1H-1-pyrazolyl)] (92-98%); and synthesis of 1,4 -biazoles via cyclocondensation reaction of b-dimethylaminoenones with different 1,2-dinucleophiles such as hydrazine monohydrate, terc-butylhydrazine hydrochloride,phenylhydrazine hydrochloride, carboxymethylhydrazine or hydroxylamine hydrochloride (50-80%). The X-ray diffraction technique was used in the elucidation of the stereochemistry of PhC(=O)C(=CNMe2)(3,5-dimethyl-1H-1-pyrazolylmethyl) and regiochemistry of the cyclocondensation reactions. / Síntese quimiosseletiva de 4-pirimidinocarboxilatos de etila e/ou 5-pirimidinoxalatos de etila via reação de ciclocondensação de b-dimetilaminoenonas [R1C(=O)C(=CNMe2)C(=O)CO2Et, onde R1 = Ph, 4-MeC6H4, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-BrC6H4, 4-ClC6H4, 4-FC6H4, 4-O2NC6H4, 2-tienil, benzo[b]furan-2-il e CF3] com 1,3-dinucleófilos do tipo NCN, tais como cloridrato de benzamidina ou cloridrato de 1H-1-pirazolil-carboxamidina (50-86%); utilização de 4-pirimidinocarboxilatos de etila (quando R1 = Ph, 4-MeOC6H4, 4-FC6H4 e 2-tienil) na reação de ciclização com monoidrato de hidrazina, levando a 7,8-diidropirimido[4,5-d]piridazin-8-onas (81- 92%). Neste trabalho, também foi estudada a reação de condensação de (3,5-dimetil-1H-1-pirazolil)alquilcetonas com N,N-dimetilformamida dimetilacetal, visando a obtenção de b-dimetilaminoenonas [PhC(=O)C(=CNMe2)(3,5-dimetil-1H-1-pirazolil), PhC(=O)C(=CNMe2)(3,5-dimetil-1H-1-pirazolilmetil) e MeC(=O)C(=CNMe2)(3,5-dimetil-1H-1-pirazolil)] (92-98%); e síntese de 1,4 -biazóis via reação de ciclocondensação de b-dimetilaminoenonas com diferentes 1,2-dinucleófilos, tais como monoidrato de hidrazina, cloridrato de terc-butilidrazina, cloridrato de fenilidrazina, carboximetilidrazina ou cloridrato de hidroxilamina (50- 80%). A técnica de difração de raios-X foi utilizada na elucidação da estereoquímica de PhC(=O)C(=CNMe2)(3,5-dimetil-1H-1-pirazolilmetil) e regioquímica das reações de ciclocondensação.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / An efficient method to obtain pyrimidinones and pyrimidines trialomethylated from the cyclocondensation reaction of compounds of methyl 7,7,7-trihalo-4-methoxy-6-oxoheptenoate with urea and differents amidines providing the series of compounds pyrimidines and pyrimidinones trifluoromethylated and trichloromerthylated is reported.Some compounds of the series were selected and brought to reaction with hydrazine monohydrate obtaining the series of new 6-(trifluoromethyl)pyrimidin-4-propanehydrazide, of which two were later brought to reaction with a series of β-alkoxyvinyltrifluoromethyl ketones giving the new series of bis-heterocyclic 4-[(5-(trifluoromethyl)-5-hydroxy-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)-1-propan-1-one-3-yl]-6- (trifluoromethyl)pyrimidine compounds. The structures of all synthesized compounds were confirmed by 1H and 13C NMR data, and two-dimensional NMR techniques like HETCOR and COLOC, ans mass spectrometry data. / Este trabalho descreve um método eficiente para a obtenção de pirimidinonas e pirimidinas trialometiladas a partir da reação de ciclocondensação [3+3] dos compostos (7,7,7-trialo-4-metoxi-6-oxo-4-heptenoatos de metila com uréia e diferentes amidinas fornecendo a série de pirimidinas e pirimidinonas 6-trifluormetil substituídas e 6-triclorometil substituídas. Alguns compostos da série de pirimidinas trifluormetiladas foram selecionados e levados à reação com monohidrato de hidrazina obtendo-se a série de novas 6-trifluormetilpirimidina-4-propanohidrazida, das quais, duas posteriormente foram levadas à reação de ciclocondensação com uma série de β-alcoxivniltrifluormetil cetonas alquil e aril substituídas dando a nova série de compostos bi-heterocíclicos 4-[(5-(trifluormetil)-5-hidroxi-4,5-diidro-1H-pirazol-1-il)-1-propan-1-ona-3-il]-6-(trifluormetil)pirimidinas. As estruturas de todos os compostos sintetizados foram confirmadas por dados de RMN 1H, 13C e técnicas de RMN bidimensionais como HETCOR e COLOC, além de dados de espectrometria de massas.

Metabolic differences in the strategies used for pyrimidine base and nucleoside salvage were studied in the pseudomonads and enteric bacteria. Fluoro--analogs were used to select mutant strains of E. coli, S. typhimurium, P. putida, and P. aeruginosa blocked in one or more of the uracil and uridine salvage enzymes. HPLC analysis of cell-free extracts from wild-type and mutant strains examined the effectiveness of the selections. Evidence was found for cytidine kinase in Pseudomonas and for an activity that converted uracil compounds to cytosine compounds. Using media supplemented with 150 μg of orotic acid per ml, P. putida SOC 1, a Pyr, upp mutant which utilizes orotic acid as a pyrimidine source was isolated for the first time in any study.

Previous research in our laboratory showed that when knockout mutations were created in the pyrB and pyrC genes of the pyrimidine pathway in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, not only were the resultant mutants auxotrophic for pyrimidines but they were also impaired in virulence factor production. Such a correlation had not been previously reported for P. aeruginosa, a ubiquitous opportunistic pathogen in humans. In an earlier study it was reported that mutants blocked in one of the first three enzymes of the pyrimidine pathway in the non-pathogenic strain P. putida M produced no pyoverdin pigment while mutants blocked in the later steps produced copious amounts of pigment, just like the wild type. This study probed for the same connection between pyrimidine auxotrophy and pigment production applied in P. aeruginosa. To that end a knockout mutation was created in pyrD, the fourth step in the pyrimidine pathway which encodes dihydroorotate dehydrogenase. The resulting mutant required pyrimidines for growth but produced wild type pigment levels. Since the pigment pyoverdin is a siderophore it may also be considered a virulence factor, other virulence factors were quantified in the mutant. These included casein protease, hemolysin, elastase, swimming, swarming and twitching motility, and iron binding capacity. In all cases these virulence factors were significantly decreased in the mutant. Even supplementing with uracil did not attain wild type levels. Starvation of the pyrimidine mutant for uracil caused increased specific activity of the pyrimidine enzymes, suggesting that regulation of the pyrimidine pathway occurred at the level of transcription. This effect has also been reported for P. oleovorans. The present research consolidates the idea that pyrimidine auxotrophs cause decreased pathogenicity in P. aeruginosa. Such a finding may open the search for chemotherapy targets in cystic fibrosis and burn victims where P. aeruginosa is an infecting agent.

In Chapter 1 a review of the literature concerning aspects of erythrocyte membrane transport and metabolism, and purine and pyrimidine metabolism is presented. The effects of pH, pO₂ and inorganic phosphate (Pi) on the uptake and metabolism of hypoxanthine by erythrocytes has been studied in Chapter 2. Uptake of hypoxanthine and accumulation of inosine 5'-monophosphate (IMP) were markedly increased at acid pH, high external phosphate concentrations, and low pO₂. Release of accumulated IMP as hypoxanthine occurred at alkaline pH values and low external phosphate concentrations. Conditions favouring IMP accumulation gave rise, in the absence of hypoxanthine, to a corresponding increase in 5'-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP). Intracellular phosphate concentrations were markedly pH dependent and a model is presented whereby hypoxanthine uptake and release are controlled by intracellular concentrations of inorganic phosphate and 2,3- bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG). These allosteric effectors influence, in opposing ways, two enzymes governing IMP accumulation, namely PRPP synthetase and 5'-nucleotidase. These metabolic properties suggest that the erythrocyte could play a role in the removal of hypoxanthine from anoxic tissue. In Chapter 3 the kinetics and mechanism of transport of orotate across the human erythrocyte membrane and the effect of pH and inorganic phosphate on its metabolism (in the erythrocyte) have been studied. It has been shown that orotate enters erythrocytes with non-saturable kinetics and with a capacity of 190 μmoles/1 packed cells/min at a concentration of 4-6 mmolar. The presence of competition for transport by a number of anions and the lack of competition by uridine is indicative of transport by a general anion transporter, with the ability for concentrative uptake in the absence of other external anions being compatible with transport via a ping-pong mechanism. Inhibition of transport by the specific band 3 inhibitors DIDS and CHCA confirm that transport is via the band 3 anion transporter. This explains the lack of significant uptake of orotate by most differentiated tissues which lack the intact band 3 protein. However, the demonstration of band 3 in rat hepatocytes (Cheng and Levy, 1980) provides a mechanism for the orotate transport which has been observed in liver (Handschumacher and Coleridge, 1979). Changes in pH and inorganic phosphate (Pi) concentrations have been shown to have marked effects on the relative quantities of metabolic products produced by the erythrocyte from orotate. There was an increase in orotate metabolised with increasing Pi, an effect augmented by lowering the pH, and most easily explained by the allosteric activation of PRPP synthetase by Pi. The increase in UTP levels with decreasing pH may be the consequence of both increased PRPP availability for the formation of uridine nucleotide from orotate, and decreased conversion of UMP to uridine by pyrimidine 5'-nucleotidase, which is known to be inhibited by phosphate. The accumulation of UDP sugars is optimal at a phosphate concentration of 10 mmolar, which is unexplained but would be compatible with an inhibitory effect of Pi on CTP synthetase. A PRPP wasting cycle at alkaline pH values is proposed to explain the apparent paradox where no PRPP was observed to accumulate in erythrocytes (Chapter 2) at pH values of 7.6 and above in the presence of 10 mmolar phosphate and no added hypoxanthine, yet the metabolism of orotate, which is a PRPP utilising reaction, at alkaline pH values was readily demonstrable here. This (apparent paradox) can be resolved if one assumes that even in the absence of added hypoxanthine and demonstrable intracellular IMP there are sufficient quantities of hypoxanthine and/or IMP to maintain a PRPP wasting cycle at alkaline pH values. The cycle is interrupted at acidic pH values as phosphate levels rise and inhibit 5'-nucleotidase, an effect augmented by the decreasing levels of 2,3-DPG which accompany decreasing pH. This wasting cycle has recently been confirmed by P. Berman (unpublished). The kinetics of orotate uptake by erythrocytes and its eventual release as uridine provides a role for the erythrocyte in the transport and distribution of pyrimidines to peripheral tissues. A model is proposed and involves the de novo production of orotate in the liver. In the next step erythrocytes take up the orotate secreted by the liver into the circulation, convert it into an intermediate buffer store of uridine nucleotides, whose distribution is a function of pH and phosphate concentration, and eventually release it as uridine, which is a readily available form of pyrimidine for utilisation by peripheral nucleated cells. The enhancement of uptake of labelled orotate into nucleic acids of cultured cells is demonstrated here. The degradative half of the cycle proposes that uracil and palanine are the predominant degradative forms of pyrimidines produced by peripheral cells, and their ultimate metabolic fate is complete catabolism in the liver to CO₂ and water. In the final chapter the possible role of the human erythrocyte in the prevention of reperfusion injury has been investigated. The development of a model of renal ischaemia in the rat is described. The ability of human erythrocytes, "primed" by preincubating in acid medium of high Pi concentration and low pO₂, to take up hypoxanthine in a concentrative manner when perfused through ischaemic rat kidney is demonstrated. Attempts to demonstrate improved survival and renal function in rats with "primed" human erythrocytes prior to reperfusion were, however, unsuccessful. It is further demonstrated that "unprimed" human erythrocytes, resident in ischaemic rat kidney for 3 hours, take up hypoxanthine and convert it to IMP. that erythrocytes could play a physiological prevention of reperfusion injury.