In contrast to the wealth of palaeoenvironmental research stemming from the eastern Afromontane archipelago, the southern Afromontane component, which comprises largely of the Drakensberg, remains understudied. The Drakensberg constitute an area of significant biodiversity, cultural and economic importance. Suitable sites for palaeoenvironmental research are rare in South Africa due to general arid climatic conditions over much of the country. The KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg offers a unique opportunity for palaeoenvironmental research through its increased rainfall and higher altitudes, which enable the development of wetlands that have the potential for polliniferous accumulation to occur. Catchment Six in Cathedral Peak is one such wetland that has provided an opportunity to research palaeoenvironmental conditions of the southern Afromontane archipelago component. A 371 cm sediment core was extracted from a subalpine wetland in Catchment Six and analysed using multiple proxies including; pollen, charcoal and geochemistry (carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes). A chronological framework for the core was established based on accelerated mass spectrometry radiocarbon dating of eight bulk sediment samples. A basal date of 15,100 ± 445 cal yr BP was determined at a depth of 298 cm. Poor pollen preservation of the basal portion of the core limited palaeoenvironmental inference for the late Pleistocene section of the record. The multiproxy record provides high chronological resolution for the early to late Holocene. Multi-proxy data indicate that the Holocene period in the Drakensberg was characterised by variable climatic conditions. Charcoal data indicate periods of increased regional fires in the last ca. 400 cal yr BP. Palaeoenvironmental inferences from the Catchment Six record are broadly in agreement with regional climatic indications based on existing literature. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are ubiquitous contaminants found worldwide in both engineered and natural systems. QACs are toxic to aquatic organisms and cause co-selection for antibiotic resistance, thus providing a reservoir of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, as well as antibiotic resistance genes in QAC-polluted environments. The objectives of the research presented here were to: a) systematically assess the fate and toxicity of QACs using quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR); b) evaluate the biotransformation potential of QACs under aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic conditions; and c) assess the potential toxicity of QACs biotransformation products. Nine QACs, belonging to three homologous groups -- monoalkonium, dialkonium and benzalkonium chlorides -- were the target QACs. The QACs critical micelle concentration (CMC) was determined. Then, the CMC was used as a descriptor to derive relationships between QAC structure and partitioning to biosolids as well as acute Microtox® toxicity. QACs with low CMCs had a relatively high adsorption affinity for biosolids and a lower toxicity than QACs with higher CMCs, which suggests that QACs that are more mobile and more (bio)available are more toxic. The biotransformation potential of benzalkonium chlorides (BAC) -- the most commonly used QACs found in engineered and natural biological systems -- under aerobic, methanogenic, nitrate reducing, and fermentative conditions was evaluated using bioenergetics and batch bioassays. The aerobic BAC biotransformation involved sequential dealkylation and debenzylation steps resulting in the formation of benzyl dimethyl amine, and dimethyl amine, respectively. The bacterial community involved in the aerobic BAC degradation was mainly composed of species belonging to the Pseudomonas genus. All QACs tested were recalcitrant under methanogenic conditions and inhibited methanogenesis at and above 25 mg QAC/L. Under nitrate reducing and fermentative conditions, BAC was transformed to alkyldimethyl amines via an abiotic reaction known as modified Hofmann degradation and a biotic reaction known as fumarate addition, respectively. Both reactions are based on a mechanism known as nucleophilic substitution. The discovery of BAC transformation by the above mentioned two reactions is the first ever report to document QAC transformation under anoxic/anaerobic conditions and delineate the transformation pathway.

It is widely believed that Australian Aboriginals utilised fire to manage various landscapes however to what extent this impacted on Australia???s ecosystems remains uncertain. The late Pleistocene/Holocene fire history from three sites within the Sydney Basin, Gooches Swamp, Lake Baraba and Kings Waterhole, were compared with archaeological and palaeoclimatic data using a novel method of quantifying macroscopic charcoal, which is presented in this study. The palynology and other palaeoecological proxies were also investigated at the three sites. The Gooches Swamp fire record appeared to be most influenced by climate and there was an abrupt increase in fire activity from the mid-Holocene perhaps associated with the onset of modern El Ni??o dominated conditions. The Kings Waterhole site also displayed an abrupt increase in charcoal at this time however there was a marked decrease in charcoal from ~3 ka. Lake Baraba similarly had displayed low levels of charcoal in the late Holocene. At both Kings Waterhole and Lake Baraba archaeological evidence suggests intensified human activity in the late Holocene during this period of lower and less variable charcoal. It is hence likely that at these sites Aboriginal people controlled fire activity in the late Holocene perhaps in response to the increased risk of large intense fires under an ENSO-dominated climate. The fire history of the Sydney Basin varies temporally and spatially and therefore it is not possible to make generalisations about pre-historic fire regimes. It is also not possible to use ideas about Aboriginal fire regimes or pre-historic activity as a management objective. The study demonstrates that increased fire activity is related to climatic variation and this is likely to be of significance under various enhanced Greenhouse scenarios. There were no major changes in the composition of the flora at all sites throughout late Pleistocene/Holocene although there were some changes in the relative abundance of different taxa. It is suggested that the Sydney Sandstone flora, which surrounds the sites, is relatively resistant to environmental changes. Casuarinaceae was present at Lake Baraba during the Last Glacial Maximum and therefore the site may have acted as a potential refugium for more mesic communities. There was a notable decline in Casuarinaceae during the Holocene at Lake Baraba and Kings Waterhole, a trend that has been found at a number of sites from southeastern Australia.

Sand ramps are widespread but understudied landforms which have the potential to provide detailed palaeoenvironmental information in dryland regions. This thesis investigates the utility of sand ramps as late Quaternary palaeoenvironmental archives by addressing two research questions: (1) What are the main controls on sand ramp formation in southern Africa? (2) What does the sand ramp record tell us about late Quaternary palaeoenvironments in southern Africa? The distribution of sand ramps in southern Africa was surveyed using Google Earth™ and 75 features were identified in southern Namibia. Ten of these sand ramps, and an additional feature from South Africa, were studied in the field. Sediments and morphology were mapped and a total of 64 OSL dates, 96 sediment samples, 10 heavy mineral assemblages and OSL sensitivity data from 8 samples were examined. The distribution of sand ramps suggests formation is dependent on (1) sediment supply, (2) accommodation space, (3) persistent unidirectional wind and (4) a variable semi-arid to arid climate. Chronologies and sediment analyses indicate individual sand ramp accumulation is locally controlled by sediment supply modulated by the availability, and nature, of the accommodation space. Comparison between the Namibian and South African sand ramps suggests considerable regional variation in the factors controlling sediment supply. The Namibian sand ramps show an affinity to local ephemeral river channels. Periods of dated sand ramp activity in multiple features are interpreted as periods of increased regional fluvial activity. Significant activity occurred at ~21-12 ka (with peaks at 21-18.5 ka and 14.5-12 ka), ~8.5-7.5 ka and ~2 ka. Some activity is also indicated at 85-65 ka and 45-35 ka. These results correspond well to regional records. Overall, this study demonstrates that sand ramps can provide palaeoclimatic information on both the local and regional scale but only if a number of caveats are taken into consideration.

No description available.

No description available.

published_or_final_version / Earth Sciences / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / abstract / Earth Sciences / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

<p>Mountain centered glaciers have played a major role throughout the last three million years in the Scandinavian mountains. The climatic extremes, like the present warm interglacial or cold glacial maxima, are very short-lived compared to the periods of intermediate climate conditions, characterized by the persistence of mountain based glaciers and ice fields of regional size. These have persisted in the Scandinavian mountains for about 65% of the Quaternary. Mountain based glaciers thus had a profound impact on large-scale geomorphology, which is manifested in large-scale glacial landforms such as fjords, glacial lakes and U-shaped valleys in and close to the mountain range.</p><p>Through a mapping of glacial landforms in the northern Scandinavian mountain range, in particular a striking set of lateral moraines, this thesis offers new insights into Weichselian stages predating the last glacial maximum. The aerial photograph mapping and field evidence yield evidence that these lateral moraines were overridden by glacier ice subsequent to their formation. The lateral moraines were dated using terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide techniques. Although the terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide signature of the moraines is inconclusive, an early Weichselian age is tentatively suggested through correlations with other landforms and stratigraphical archives in the region. The abundance and coherent spatial pattern of the lateral moraines also allow a spatial reconstruction of this ice field. The ice field was controlled by topography and had nunataks protruding also where it was thickest close to the elevation axis of the Scandinavian mountain range. Outlet glaciers discharged into the Norwegian fjords and major valleys in Sweden.</p><p>The process by which mountain based glaciers grow into an ice sheet is a matter of debate. In this thesis, a feedback mechanism between debris on the ice surface and ice sheet growth is presented. In essence, the growth of glaciers and ice sheets may be accelerated by an abundance of debris in their ablation areas. This may occur when the debris cover on the glacier surface inhibits ablation, effectively increasing the glaciers mass balance. It is thus possible that a dirty ablation area may cause the glacier to advance further than a clean glacier under similar conditions. An ice free period of significant length allows soil production through weathering, frost shattering, and slope processes. As glaciers advance through this assemblage of sediments, significant amounts of debris end up on the surface due to both mass wastage and subglacial entrainment. Evidence that this chain of events may occur, is given by large expanses of hummocky moraine (local name Veiki moraine) in the northern Swedish lowlands. Because the Veiki moraine has been correlated with the first Weichselian advance following the Eemian, it implies a heavily debris charged ice sheet emanating from the mountain range and terminating in a stagnant fashion in the lowlands.</p>

Fossil beetle based palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions are presented from the Westport region, West Coast, South Island, New Zealand for the last glacial cycle. They include the longest continuous fossil beetle record from New Zealand, covering 16,000 years over the OIS 3/OIS 2 transition. Early last glacial (OIS 4) and mid- Holocene (OIS 1) reconstructions are also presented. The assumptions underlying fossil beetle research in New Zealand are tested indicating beetles are suitable proxies for reconstructing palaeotemperature and palaeoprecipitation. This thesis provides the first quantitative estimates of temperature and precipitation from the Westport region for the last glacial. Reconstructed temperatures indicate stadial cooling was seasonal. Maximum cooling was ca. 5℃ in winter and ca. 2-3℃ in summer. Winter cooling is consistent with previous quantitative estimates from New Zealand. Mean annual precipitation decreased a maximum 35-40% during stadials. Temperatures and precipitation varied during OIS 3/2 indicating multiple possible drivers for glaciation. A glacial advance ca. 34-28ka BP correlates with ca. 5℃ winter cooling and ca. 40% less precipitation, which supports temperature driven glaciation whereas a glacial advance ca. 24-22ka BP correlates with ca. 3℃ winter cooling and precipitation similar to present, which supports precipitation forced glaciation. Palaeoenvironmental reconstructions of stadial vegetation from the Westport region indicate lowland Nothofagus fusca-type forest during OIS 4 and a forest-grassland mosaic during OIS 3/2. These records contrast with pollen-based reconstructions of a treeless landscape in Westport during stadials but are consistent with quantitative estimates of stadial cooling. A shift of reproductive strategy in arboreal vegetation may explain the lack of tree pollen in stadial pollen records. This is significant for our understanding of glacial palaeoecology and palaeoclimatology as pollen records may not accurately represent stadial vegetation.