A recent trend in schools has been to reduce or eliminate recess. The assumption behind this elimination is that less recess time provides more opportunities for learning and hence, better learning outcomes. However, little research has examined the effects of this assumption, and little is known about the relationship between recess and learning. The purpose of this mixed method quasi-experimental study was to test the massed versus distributed practice theory and the cognitive immaturity theory, and to gain a better understanding of recess and its implications for learning. The quantitative question was designed to determine whether segmenting instructional time with a recess break had an influence on second grade students' oral reading fluency (ORF). Based on an independent-measures t test and a chi-square test of significance, no significant difference was found in ORF gain scores between the second graders who did and did not have a morning recess break, suggesting that segmenting instructional time did not have a significant impact on the student ORF. The qualitative question was designed to examine the connection between recess and learning. After data were coded and an interpretive analysis was conducted, a positive connection was found indicating that recess enhances learning. It was also noted that factors other than the timing of recess may influence children's learning. Results provide support for the inclusion of recess for every child for the development of their psychomotor, affective and cognitive needs. Results also indicate that the long-term effects of providing recess may outweigh the short-term effects of reducing or eliminating recess.

The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine whether or not a significant relationship exists among daily writing and student growth in phonemic awareness. The study also considered the impact of writing on the phonemic awareness development of students at different literacy levels. Although studies exist on the importance of phonemic awareness development in reading acquisition, a deficit exists examining the correlation among daily writing and the phonemic awareness development of students representing different literacy levels. Forty students in an experimental group engaged in daily writing opportunities, while 37 students in the control group engaged in less frequent writing opportunities. Data included pre- and posttest results from The Phonological Awareness Test. Descriptive statistics were chosen to describe the demographic variable of group, gender, and ability level and inferential statistics included the two-sample t test. Results were statistically analyzed using SPSS 13.0 and concluded that a significant relationship does exist among daily writing opportunities and the phonemic awareness development of kindergarten students. Daily exposure to writing had a significant impact on students in the low-risk experimental group. Although a significant difference was not found in the some/at-risk groups, the experimental group had a larger average increase on the phonemic awareness measure. Results will fill the existing gap between research and practice concerning the correlation among daily writing and phonemic awareness, and the reciprocal impact this correlation has on students' literacy development. In addition, results may influence early childhood educators to implement daily writing opportunities as a method for increasing students' phonemic awareness development.

Very little research has been conducted on the impact of the Imagination Library, a Tennessee based reading program, on student reading achievement. Therefore, the purpose of this cross-sectional explanatory study was to test whether Imagination Library program participation had an impact on reading achievement for kindergarten students from 3 rural elementary schools. The theoretical basis for this study was Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, the process of scaffolding, and language learning models. ANOVA was used to test the hypothesis that reading achievement for participants was significantly different from nonparticipants and was also used to test the hypotheses of relationships between reading achievement and gender and socioeconomic status. Spearman correlation was used to test whether a relationship exists between the reported frequency of read-aloud sessions and achievement as well as a relationship between the length of time in the program and achievement. Findings from this study supported an achievement gap by socioeconomic status. However, findings failed to support a gender achievement gap and that program participation, length of participation, or the reported frequency of read-aloud sessions significantly impacted reading achievement among kindergarten students. A conclusion from this research is that just sending free books to children is not enough. Recommendations for action include registering more lower-income households, enriching the program with supplemental information or materials, and providing opportunities for parent education workshops. The implications for social change include greater awareness of early intervention strategies for reducing the achievement gap and enhancing literacy at an early age.

Many researchers have documented that reading fluency scores continue to be a national concern for the United States and have suggested that early reading failure has long-term detrimental effects on society. However, much less is known regarding specific interventions that could reduce this concern. Investigators in other studies have suggested the development of early school-home partnerships to improve reading scores. The purpose of this quasi-experimental study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a systematic school-home intervention to improve reading fluency scores. Following the theoretical foundation of emergent literacy theory and Joyce Epstein's framework, the research question focuses on the association between reading fluency scores and early school-home communication. The intervention consisted of using informative memos, regular mailings of information to home address, and monthly newsletters to parents. Participants represented four kindergarten classes in a diverse northeastern US community (n = 85). Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) was used to gather data. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that there was a significant statistical difference in the reading fluency scores between the control and treatment groups. Based upon the observed increases in reading scores, the early school-home intervention was effective. It is suggested that schools apply this school-home communication intervention particularly in the early grades and encourage parent participation. These findings make an important contribution to social change by providing schools, parents, and school leaders with a systematic method to enhance reading performance by targeting students at an early age and their parents to promote long-term student success and enhance academic learning.

In response to its failure to meet state mandated proficiency standards in reading and mathematics over the past three years, a rural, Title I high school (LS) in South Carolina purchased and implemented the commercially available literacy program READ 180 (R180) for the 2008-2009 academic year. While previous research reported by Scholastic, Incorporated (R180) had provided support for the use of R180 in improving literacy, these studies have been criticized recently for their lack of comparable control groups, experimenter bias and lack of data from other content areas such as mathematics. The purpose of this study was to determine the relative effectiveness of R180 in improving reading and math performance when compared with traditional high school English course instruction in a group of ninth grade students at LS. The theoretical framework for this study was based on Vygotsky's cognitive developmental theory which emphasizes the role of language in learning in all content areas. A group of below average reading ability students was assigned by LS to the R180 instructional class while a second group of average ability students was assigned to the traditional English course (TRAD). Both groups were pre and post tested in reading and math using the state-sponsored Measures of Academic Progress (MAP) standardized achievement test. Dependent samples t-tests and Analysis of Covariance were used to analyze the data. The results indicated statistically significant improvements in both math and reading scores for the TRAD group but not for the R180 group. This study has implications for positive social change in the form of independent, empirically-based data to both inform the administration of LS in future decision making regarding funding for the very costly R180 program as well as contributing to the overall database on R180's effectiveness.

Currently some elementary students in large urban school districts are not able to perform well in school because they do not have strong reading skills. The recent No Child Left Behind (NCLB) federal legislation has supported the use of research-based instructional materials and strategies in reading to remedy this problem; however, qualitative studies exploring the specific nonquantifiable instructional factors that contribute to reading achievement in large urban school districts are still limited. The purpose of this multiple empirical case study was to explore the instructional factors that contributed to achievement in reading for students in Grades 3 and 4 at 2 urban midwestern elementary schools. The conceptual framework for this study was based on the philosophy of constructivism, which provided an understanding about how students learn to read in terms of creating meaning and constructing knowledge. The methodology of this qualitative multiple case study involved collection and analysis of data from multiple sources of evidence, including interviews, observations, and documents. The first level of data analysis used the specific analytic technique of category construction recommended by Merriam; the second level of data analysis used the general analytic technique of theory development as suggested by Yin and Merriam and, using that technique, a theoretical proposition was confirmed. Findings of this study indicated that direct and explicit instruction, including the consistent use of early literacy indicators and specific instructional strategies in reading, was the most significant factor in contributing to reading achievement for students. Implications for positive social change in education include improvement in reading instruction and assessment as well as improved district policies related to the development of high quality instructional reading programs.

Despite Minnesota's investment in professional development in content area literacy, secondary students are not showing expected literacy gains. A lack of literacy proficiency limits future options for students. The purpose of this study was to examine content-area literacy strategy inclusion and its relationship to professional development in the context of complexity theory, efficacy theory, transformational learning theory, structured teaching, and constructivism. A cross-section correlation survey research study was conducted to investigate the relationship of time spent in systematic professional development, type of professional development, rate of strategy inclusion, and confidence in literacy strategy inclusion in lesson design. Convenience sampling was employed to secure secondary teachers (N = 65) in public schools in Minnesota. The Spearman Rho Coefficient calculation was used to analyze these 4 variables; relationships were determined at ( p < .05) and (p < .01) confidence levels. According to the results of the study, self-selected professional development is related to the frequency of literacy strategy use and confidence in literacy strategy use. Time in professional development is a critical issue in confidence of literacy strategy use. Recommendations for local districts include providing a menu of self-selected literacy professional development options. This study may impact social change through providing educators improved literacy instruction, resulting in more competent adult readers and informed decision-makers.

Elementary students in one school have shown a decline in proficient and advanced performance on statewide assessments. This decline increased for reading and mathematics achievement from 2003--2008, especially for disabled and minority students in grades 3--5. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to determine the extent to which differentiated instruction was implemented in instructional practices to increase student academic performance. Vygotsky's theory of constructivism, Bruner's theory of problem solving, and Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences provided the conceptual frameworks for this study. The research questions focused on the instructional strategies and resources used by teachers. Data included interviews, observations, and lesson plans from 2 third-grade, 2 fourth-grade, and 2 fifth-grade teachers. Data were coded using categorical aggregation through the use of inductive analysis to identify patterns. Results included the processes used to determine ability levels, methods used to differentiate instruction, and resources used to supplement instruction. Findings revealed that teachers differentiated instruction using a variety of strategies. It is recommended that a program that features differentiated math instruction could be offered, more time could be allocated for collaborative planning, and support could be offered for classroom management. This research has the potential to effect positive social change by equipping teachers, through professional development opportunities, to implement strategies relative to their students' learning needs.

The three tiered reading model and the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) are two initiatives being used to identify struggling readers of low socioeconomic status. While there is abundant information with statistical reports from various researchers, there is little research available as to what educators implementing DIBELS in the school environment perceive about the instrument, what it measures and what it fails to take into account. It is important to examine all aspects and views of an initiative being widely used across the nation to close the reading achievement gap. Educators working with students of low socioeconomic status will benefit from the insightfulness of this phenomenological qualitative research study investigating classroom teachers' perceptions of the two initiatives. Data were collected from K-3 teachers at three target schools located in a mid-southeastern state of the United States via surveys and interviews to establish teachers' perceptions of the strength and weakness of the two initiatives. The data were analyzed using open, axial, and selective coding. Participants indicated DIBELS should not be the only measure used to determine skill deficits in the struggling reader and that the two initiatives work well together to identify struggling readers and promote reading achievement in students of low socioeconomic status. Effectively educating students of low socioeconomic status will not only close the reading achievement gap but also break the generational poverty cycle by empowering the individual to be a productive member of society.

Elementary students from low socioeconomic households often begin and remain behind other socioeconomic groups in vocabulary knowledge. Many reasons for this gap, including cognitive, environmental, and educational, have been researched. The current study examined the relationship between vocabulary knowledge, socioeconomic status, and type of teacher discourse within an early elementary setting not yet explored within the research. This concurrent mixed-method research study investigated this relationship using study groups, taped classroom lessons, and the DIBELS word use fluency assessment measure. Interpretative analysis was used for the qualitative data, and correlational analysis was used to determine relationships between the discourse types and the DIBELS word use fluency growth scores. The quantitative results suggested that as two-way teacher-student conversation increased, vocabulary knowledge in students from low socioeconomic households also increased. The qualitative results indicated that lesson reflection alters teachers' perceptions of discourse beliefs. The findings of this study initiate social change by assuring quality professional development methods so that all teachers use effective communication along with best practices. These improved techniques may result in every child gaining an equal opportunity to learn how to read successfully and may assist in closing the socioeconomic achievement gap.