A growing body of research has compared the effects of explicit and implicit corrective feedback (CF) on L2 accuracy. However, L2 performance is not limited to accuracy. Fluency is another important aspect of L2 performance, but less is understood about its relationship with CF and CF explicitness/implicitness. This experimental study examined the effects of explicit correction versus implicit recasts on not only the accuracy but also the fluency of L2 speech during videoconferencing. Forty-eight lower-intermediate learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) were assigned to an explicit correction group, an implicit recast group, and a no-feedback group. Each engaged in eight picture description tasks with the researcher and received feedback according to the group they came from. Pre and posttests (immediate and delayed) of accuracy and fluency were conducted using additional picture tasks. Accuracy was measured by calculating the percentage of learners’ (a) error-free clauses and (b) error-free T-units. Fluency was measured by calculating the number of (a) syllables per minute and (b) meaningful syllables per minute. Statistical analyses included (a) two-way repeated measures ANOVAs with feedback type as the between-subject factor and time as the within subject factor, (b) Planned comparisons, which treated the two experimental groups as one group and compared their mean with the mean of the control group, (c) Bonferroni post hoc tests, which examined the pairwise differences, and where needed, (d) paired sample t-tests, which examined each group’s pretest-posttest differences. As for accuracy, planned comparisons showed that videoconferencing CF, irrespective of its explicitness/implicitness, improved accuracy. Further analyses showed that whereas the explicit correction group outperformed the control group on both the immediate and delayed posttests, the recast group did not. However, the explicit feedback group produced a significantly less fluent speech compared to the recast group and the control group. But this was true on the immediate posttest and not on the delayed posttest. Pretest-posttest comparisons further indicated a negative effect for explicit correction but a positive effect for recasts on L2 fluency. The results suggest that (a) while explicit correction assisted accuracy, it negatively influenced fluency, and (b) while implicit correction seemed to assist fluency, it was not as effective as the effect of explicit correction on L2 accuracy. Further analyses indicated that the explicit correction group exhibited a large amount of monitoring behaviour on the immediate posttest, whereas the other two groups did not. The results are explained using an information-processing perspective of language performance and a knowledge proceduralization model of language development. The theoretical, empirical, and pedagogical implications are also discussed. / Graduate

The purpose of this experimental study is to examine the effects of recasts on narrowing overgeneralized grammar in the second language (L2). The study involved testing three major hypotheses of the mechanisms underlying recasts: the direct contrast hypothesis (Saxton, 1997, 2000), the additional input hypothesis (Gass, 1997; Gass & Mackey, 2007; Long, 1996, 2007), and the enhanced salience hypothesis (Leeman, 2003). Two structures (adjective ordering and indirect passives) were selected for this study, mainly because it was assumed that Japanese learners of English might produce overgeneralized rules that allow incorrect structures because of their first language (L1) influence. The participants were 97 Japanese university students learning English as a foreign language in Japan. They were randomly assigned to four treatment groups: recast (the REC Group), non-contingent positive evidence (the POS Group), recast plus additional input (the REC+ Group), and input with enhanced salience (the SAL Group). A pretest, posttest, and delayed-posttest design were employed. The measurement instruments were an oral production task, elicited imitation task, and untimed grammaticality judgment task, each of which was designed to elicit participants’ implicit and explicit knowledge about adjective ordering and indirect passives. Thus, the independent variable was the treatment conditions, and the dependent variable were the test scores regarding ungrammaticality of the overgeneralized rules of the target structures. After data screening, the data from 75 of the 97 participants were analyzed for adjective ordering, and the data from 90 participants were analyzed for indirect passives. The results showed that the POS Group did not improve on all the measures for adjective ordering and indirect passives; thus, it was suggested that positive evidence was not sufficient for the participants to narrow overgeneralized rules for the target structures. The findings indicated that for adjective ordering, medium effect sizes for the comparison of the POS and REC Groups were obtained on the grammaticality judgment tests for the pretest-posttest and pretest-delayed posttest comparisons. Thus, based on these effect sizes, the direct contrast hypothesis was partially supported (i.e., for one of the two structures and one measure of the three tests). Furthermore, on the basis of the results that the REC and REC+ Groups did not differ significantly on any measure and that on the adjective-ordering grammaticality judgment tests, the comparison between the REC+ Group and the POS Group obtained a medium effect size for the pretest-delayed posttest comparison, the provision of recasts in the REC and REC+ Groups was effective at least for the adjective-ordering grammaticality judgment tests; however, additional input alone did not have an impact on L2 learners’ retreat from the overgeneralized rules. Finally, the results showed that the POS and SAL Groups did not differ significantly and that there existed a difference in the performance on the adjective-ordering grammaticality judgment tests between the REC Group and the SAL Groups. Salience might not be effective in helping L2 learners retreat from overgeneralized rules, and the enhanced salience hypothesis can be interpreted as being limited to learning some linguistic structures. In conclusion, the present study provides empirical evidence that L2 learners can persist in using incorrect overgeneralized rules due to L1 rules and that ten tokens of the target structures are not effective for L2 learners to retreat from the overgeneralized rules. Furthermore, the findings lend support to the direct contrast hypothesis as a mechanism underlying recasts for one of the two target structures. / Teaching & Learning

The research presented in this thesis examined whether incidental recasts provided by a teacher in a small-group outside a classroom were beneficial to adult ESL learners. The 26 ESL learners who participated in the study were divided into seven small groups (3-5 students per group) and each group participated in an oral activity with a teacher. During the activity, which was videotaped, the teacher provided incidental and extensive recasts to half of each student’s errors; the other half of the errors received no feedback. One day after the small-group activity, students were tested on their ability to detect and correct errors in their own speech. From the videotape, three types of episodes were identified for testing: episodes that involved an error by the student and a recast (error+recast) (n = 111), episodes that involved an error but no recast (error-recast) (n = 111), and episodes that involved no error in the student’s speech (correct) (n = 111). Students’ ability to detect and correct their errors in the three types of episodes was assessed using two types of tests: a stimulated correction test (a video-based computer test) and a written test. Students’ reaction time on the error detection portion of the stimulated correction task was also measured. The results of the study showed that the students benefited from the recasts. It was found that students were able to detect more errors in error+recast episodes than in error-recast episodes (though this difference did not reach statistical significance). They were also able to successfully and partially successfully correct more errors from error+recast episodes than from error-recast episodes, and this difference was statistically significant on the written test. The reaction time results also point towards a benefit from recasts, as students were able to complete the task (slightly) more quickly for error+recast episodes than for error-recast episodes. It was concluded from the results that recasts, even when provided extensively and in a non-dyadic context, can be of benefit to ESL students.

By exploring previous research, this systematic literature review aims to shed light on the effectiveness of oral corrective feedback practices by teachers to students on oral proficiency with the focus on recasts and prompts. This systematic literature review also intends to shed light on the effectiveness of recasts and prompts compared with each other. This study reports on the results of 13 experimental or quasi-experimental studies that measured the effectiveness of prompts and recasts on language acquisition and the effectiveness of prompts and recasts compared with each other. In those studies, outcome measures such as grammaticality judgement tasks, oral production tasks, and written production tasks were utilized. The target structures of the included studies were different morpho-syntactical and phonological structures. The accounted findings of this study show that recasts are effective at increasing students’ oral proficiency in seven of thirteen studies and not effective in six of 13 studies. The reported results also demonstrate that prompts are effective at improving students’ oral proficiency in eight of ten studies and ineffective in two of ten studies. In eight of ten studies in which the effectiveness of prompts and recasts are compared with each other, prompts are more effective than recasts. However, recasts are more effective than prompts in two of ten studies. The reported findings indicate that the effectiveness of corrective feedback in general on language acquisition is uncertain and that prompts might be effective. In addition, the accounted results suggest that the effectiveness of recasts on improving students’ oral proficiency is doubtful. Moreover, the reported findings of this study also suggest the higher degree of efficacy of prompts over recasts.

Cette étude quasi-expérimentale a pour but de 1) comparer la prise en compte et les effets de trois conditions rétroactives, à savoir la reformulation, l’incitation et un mélange des deux techniques, 2) déterminer le lien entre la prise en compte et l’apprentissage, et 3) identifier l’effet des perceptions des apprenants quant à la rétroaction corrective sur la prise en compte et l’apprentissage. Quatre groupes d’apprenants d’anglais langue seconde ainsi que leurs enseignants provenant d’un CEGEP francophone de l’île de Montréal ont participé à cette étude. Chaque enseignant a été assigné à une condition rétroactive expérimentale qui correspondait le plus à ses pratiques rétroactives habituelles. La chercheure a assuré l’intervention auprès du groupe contrôle. L’utilisation du passé et de la phrase interrogative était ciblée durant l’intervention expérimentale. Des protocoles de pensée à haute voie ainsi qu’un questionnaire ont été utilisés pour mesurer la prise en compte de la rétroaction corrective. Des tâches de description d’images et d’identification des différences entre les images ont été administrées avant l’intervention (pré-test), immédiatement après l’intervention (post-test immédiat) et 8 semaines plus tard (post-test différé) afin d’évaluer les effets des différentes conditions rétroactives sur l’apprentissage des formes cibles. Un questionnaire a été administré pour identifier les perceptions des apprenants quant à la rétroaction corrective. En termes de prise en compte, les résultats indiquent que les participants sont en mesure de remarquer la rétroaction dépendamment de la forme cible (les erreurs dans l’utilisation du passé sont détectées plus que les erreurs d’utilisation de la phrase interrogative) et de la technique rétroactive utilisée (l’incitation et le mélange d’incitation et de reformulations sont plus détectés plus que la reformulation). En ce qui a trait à l’apprentissage, l’utilisation du passé en général est marquée par plus de développement que celle de la phrase interrogative, mais il n'y avait aucune différence entre les groupes. Le lien direct entre la prise en compte et l’apprentissage ne pouvait pas être explicitement établi. Pendant que la statistique inférentielle a suggéré une relation minimale entre la prise en compte du passé et son apprentissage, mais aucune relation entre la prise en compte de la phrase interrogative et son apprentissage, les analyses qualitatives ont montrés à une association entre la prise en compte et l’apprentissage (sur les deux cibles) pour certains étudiants et augmentations sans prise en compte pour d'autres. Finalement, l’analyse factorielle du questionnaire indique la présence de quatre facteurs principaux, à savoir l’importance de la rétroaction corrective, la reformulation, l’incitation et les effets affectifs de la rétroaction. Deux de ces facteurs ont un effet modérateur sur la prise en compte de la rétroaction sans, toutefois, avoir d’impact sur l’apprentissage. / This quasi-experimental study sought to investigate the often assumed yet little investigated relationship between noticing of corrective feedback (CF) and L2 development in relation to learner beliefs about error correction. Specifically, it aimed to (1) uncover the noticeability and effectiveness of three CF techniques (namely, recasts, prompts, a combination of the two) (2) to determine a relationship between noticing of CF and learning of the past tense and questions in the past, and (3) to determine whether learner beliefs about CF mediate what is noticed and learned in the language classroom. The participants were four groups of high-beginner college level francophone ESL learners (n = 99) and their teachers. Each teacher was assigned to a treatment condition that fit his CF style, but the researcher taught the controls. CF was provided to learners in response to their production problems with the simple past and questions in the past. While noticing of CF was assessed through immediate recall and questionnaire responses, learning outcomes were measured by way of picture description and spot the differences tasks administered through a pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test design. Learner beliefs about CF were probed by means of a 40-item questionnaire. To elicit the learner and teacher perspectives on the study, semi-structured interviews were held with the three teachers and 20 learners, drawn randomly from the participating classes. The results indicated that the noticeability of CF is dependent on the grammatical target it addresses (i.e., feedback on past tense errors was noticed more) and that the feedback techniques that push learners to self-correct alone or in combination with target exemplars are more effective in bringing out the corrective intent of a feedback move. In relation to the learning outcomes, the overall past tense accuracy increased more than that for questions, but there were no differences between the groups. The direct link between noticing and learning could not be unequivocally established. While the inferential statistics suggested a minimal relationship between noticing and past tense scores, especially if the CF was provided with recasts, but no relationship between noticing and questions scores, the qualitative analyses pointed to an association between noticing and test scores (on both targets) for some learners and gains without noticing for others. Finally, in relation to the beliefs about CF, the participants’ responses centered on four common themes (the importance of oral CF, recasts as CF technique, prompts as CF technique, and affective consequences of CF), two of which mediated the noticeability of the supplied CF, but none impacted the learning outcomes.

Cette étude quasi-expérimentale a pour but de 1) comparer la prise en compte et les effets de trois conditions rétroactives, à savoir la reformulation, l’incitation et un mélange des deux techniques, 2) déterminer le lien entre la prise en compte et l’apprentissage, et 3) identifier l’effet des perceptions des apprenants quant à la rétroaction corrective sur la prise en compte et l’apprentissage. Quatre groupes d’apprenants d’anglais langue seconde ainsi que leurs enseignants provenant d’un CEGEP francophone de l’île de Montréal ont participé à cette étude. Chaque enseignant a été assigné à une condition rétroactive expérimentale qui correspondait le plus à ses pratiques rétroactives habituelles. La chercheure a assuré l’intervention auprès du groupe contrôle. L’utilisation du passé et de la phrase interrogative était ciblée durant l’intervention expérimentale. Des protocoles de pensée à haute voie ainsi qu’un questionnaire ont été utilisés pour mesurer la prise en compte de la rétroaction corrective. Des tâches de description d’images et d’identification des différences entre les images ont été administrées avant l’intervention (pré-test), immédiatement après l’intervention (post-test immédiat) et 8 semaines plus tard (post-test différé) afin d’évaluer les effets des différentes conditions rétroactives sur l’apprentissage des formes cibles. Un questionnaire a été administré pour identifier les perceptions des apprenants quant à la rétroaction corrective. En termes de prise en compte, les résultats indiquent que les participants sont en mesure de remarquer la rétroaction dépendamment de la forme cible (les erreurs dans l’utilisation du passé sont détectées plus que les erreurs d’utilisation de la phrase interrogative) et de la technique rétroactive utilisée (l’incitation et le mélange d’incitation et de reformulations sont plus détectés plus que la reformulation). En ce qui a trait à l’apprentissage, l’utilisation du passé en général est marquée par plus de développement que celle de la phrase interrogative, mais il n'y avait aucune différence entre les groupes. Le lien direct entre la prise en compte et l’apprentissage ne pouvait pas être explicitement établi. Pendant que la statistique inférentielle a suggéré une relation minimale entre la prise en compte du passé et son apprentissage, mais aucune relation entre la prise en compte de la phrase interrogative et son apprentissage, les analyses qualitatives ont montrés à une association entre la prise en compte et l’apprentissage (sur les deux cibles) pour certains étudiants et augmentations sans prise en compte pour d'autres. Finalement, l’analyse factorielle du questionnaire indique la présence de quatre facteurs principaux, à savoir l’importance de la rétroaction corrective, la reformulation, l’incitation et les effets affectifs de la rétroaction. Deux de ces facteurs ont un effet modérateur sur la prise en compte de la rétroaction sans, toutefois, avoir d’impact sur l’apprentissage. / This quasi-experimental study sought to investigate the often assumed yet little investigated relationship between noticing of corrective feedback (CF) and L2 development in relation to learner beliefs about error correction. Specifically, it aimed to (1) uncover the noticeability and effectiveness of three CF techniques (namely, recasts, prompts, a combination of the two) (2) to determine a relationship between noticing of CF and learning of the past tense and questions in the past, and (3) to determine whether learner beliefs about CF mediate what is noticed and learned in the language classroom. The participants were four groups of high-beginner college level francophone ESL learners (n = 99) and their teachers. Each teacher was assigned to a treatment condition that fit his CF style, but the researcher taught the controls. CF was provided to learners in response to their production problems with the simple past and questions in the past. While noticing of CF was assessed through immediate recall and questionnaire responses, learning outcomes were measured by way of picture description and spot the differences tasks administered through a pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test design. Learner beliefs about CF were probed by means of a 40-item questionnaire. To elicit the learner and teacher perspectives on the study, semi-structured interviews were held with the three teachers and 20 learners, drawn randomly from the participating classes. The results indicated that the noticeability of CF is dependent on the grammatical target it addresses (i.e., feedback on past tense errors was noticed more) and that the feedback techniques that push learners to self-correct alone or in combination with target exemplars are more effective in bringing out the corrective intent of a feedback move. In relation to the learning outcomes, the overall past tense accuracy increased more than that for questions, but there were no differences between the groups. The direct link between noticing and learning could not be unequivocally established. While the inferential statistics suggested a minimal relationship between noticing and past tense scores, especially if the CF was provided with recasts, but no relationship between noticing and questions scores, the qualitative analyses pointed to an association between noticing and test scores (on both targets) for some learners and gains without noticing for others. Finally, in relation to the beliefs about CF, the participants’ responses centered on four common themes (the importance of oral CF, recasts as CF technique, prompts as CF technique, and affective consequences of CF), two of which mediated the noticeability of the supplied CF, but none impacted the learning outcomes.

L'objectif de cette étude est de contribuer à explorer le changement dans les représentations des enseignants quant à la rétroaction corrective (RC), et ce, afin de mieux informer les programmes de formation des enseignants. Pour atteindre cet objectif, nous avons tenté d’apporter des éléments de réponse aux questions de recherche suivantes (1) quelles représentations relatives à la RC les futurs enseignants Algériens de français langue étrangère (FLE) détenaient-ils avant la formation, (2) comment ces représentations ont-elles changé après une formation sur la RC, (3) quels éléments de la formation sont-ils les plus susceptibles de changer les représentations de ces futurs enseignants quant à la RC? Deux groupes (un groupe expérimental et un groupe témoin) de 14 futurs enseignants Algériens, inscrits au Mastère en FLE, ont participé à l'étude. Le groupe expérimental a participé à un cours de formation sur la RC, alors que le groupe témoin n'a pas participé. Les instruments de recherche comprennent un questionnaire à échelle de Likert et des groupes de discussion (entrevues) qui abordent quatre facteurs en rapport avec la RC (reformulation, incitation, mise en œuvre des techniques de RC et importance de la RC). Chacun des deux instruments a été administré avant et après la formation, et seul le groupe expérimental a effectué les entrevues avant et après la formation. La formation inclut une base théorique et des résultats empiriques sur les différentes dimensions de la RC, ainsi qu'une composante pratique (activités d'enseignement). Les données provenant des deux outils de recherche ont été analysées de façon descriptive. Les exemples de changement de représentations - dans les transcriptions d'entrevues - ont été identifiés en utilisant cinq catégories correspondant aux différents types de changement (inversion, élaboration, consolidation, pseudo-changement et aucun changement). Les principaux résultats de cette étude : (1) avant la formation, les futurs enseignants avaient des représentations neutres et non claires sur les techniques de RC (reformulation et incitation) qui doivent tenir compte du type d'erreur et du niveau de compétence de l'apprenant. De plus, les participants du groupe expérimental étaient contre la RC immédiate et n'avaient pas une idée précise sur les erreurs à corriger ; (2) la formation sur la RC a été jugée efficace. En d'autres termes, après la formation, il y avait un changement évident vers des représentations plus positives au sujet de la RC immédiate et des représentations plus négatives quant à la reformulation. En outre, les participants ont subi une reconstitution totale de leurs représentations en lien avec les quatre facteurs avec beaucoup d'élaborations. Les participants ont attribué le changement de leurs représentations à la deuxième partie de la formation (études empiriques, techniques de RC et mise en œuvre de la RC). Les participants préconisent qu'ils ont été exposés pour la première fois à ce contenu sur la RC. Cette étude offre des implications pour d'autres études autour de questions de recherche similaires. / The objective of this study is to contribute to the range of research exploring change in teachers' corrective feedback (CF) beliefs to better inform future teacher training programs. The research questions used to accomplish the purpose of this study focused on1) what beliefs Algerian pre-service teachers of French as a foreign language (FFL) at University of Hadj Lakhdar Batna hold regarding CF before a CF training course, 2) how those beliefs change after a CF training course, and 3) what dimensions of the training course influence these pre-service teachers’ beliefs about CF? Two groups of 14 Algerian MA pre-service teachers of FFL-one experimental and one control- participated in this study. The experimental group participated in a teacher training course about CF while the control group did not. The research instruments included a Likert-scale questionnaire and focus group interviews that addressed four CF factors (recasts, prompts, CF implementation and CF importance). Each of the two instruments was administered twice before the training started and immediately after it ended, with only the experimental group taking the pre and post focus group interviews. The training course included theoretical information and empirical results about CF and its dimensionsas well as a practical component (teaching activities).Data obtained from the two research tools were analysed descriptively. Patterns of belief change-in the interviews transcripts- were identified using five categories about types of change (reversal, elaboration, consolidation, pseudo change and no change). Findings indicated that prior to the CF training, preservice teachers' beliefs were barely defined (i.e. they were largely neutral) especially in relation to CF techniques (recasts and prompts) for error type and learner's proficiency level. Furthermore, they were against immediate CF and did not have a clear idea about which errors should be corrected. Concerning the results in belief change, the CF training course was found to be effective. That is, after CF training, there was an obvious shift toward more positive beliefs about immediate CF and more negative beliefs about recasts. Furthermore, participants underwent a total re-construction of their beliefs in relation to the four factors with lots of elaborations. Participants attributed change in their beliefs to the second part of the training course (CF empirical studies, CF techniques and CF implementation). The participants explained that they were exposed for the first time to this content about CF and its dimensions.